



















v^^ ^^ 







^^^ 
0°^.^^ 








































° ^v'^ 



.# ^ 







C^ .' 



*1 (O 




\^^^ 




















O '^tP 



'^^.<<^ 














^-^^ 



.^" -^ 



■^ 



=%^o^ " SIB - ^^^ 




* -co 



■^ 







.V' 







.^ .". 









*^ 










..V" ^ 







.^^ 



^ %> ^ - 

- ^/.O* 



"^^0^ 



^0^ " 



ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 
IN THE UNITED STATES 



•The 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



THE 

ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC 
EDUCATION 

IN 

THE UNITED STATES 



SAMUEL TRAf^'lD'UTTON, A.M. 

PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN TEACHERS COLLEGE 

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, AND SUPERINTENDENT OF THE 

COLLEGE SCHOOLS 

AUTHOR OF " SOCIAL PHASES OF EDUCATION," " SCHOOL MANAGEMENT," ETC, 

AND 

DAVID SNEDDEN, Ph.D. 

ADJUNCT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS 

COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 

AUTHOR OF " SCHOOL REPORTS AND SCHOOL EFFICIENCY," ETC. 



WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY 

NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, Ph.D., LL.D. 

PRESIDENT OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1908 

AU rights reserved 



u. 



ItiRffARY of OONGSESSl 
I Iwu Ciooies hecBivcsj 

SEP, 2ii).)yua 



q 



Copyright, 1908, 

By the macmillan company. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published September, igo8. 



WarbJooD 33te88 

J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



^ ^ % 



INTRODUCTION 

The careful and scholarly study of the administration of 
education in the United States by my colleagues, Professors 
Button and Snedden, is a valuable and timely contribution 
to the literature of education. In a democratic State, it is 
of first importance that the relation of the State to the organs 
and agencies of culture and enhghtenment be clearly defined 
and well understood. The wise and truly representative 
organization and administration of education is only a little 
less important than the organization and conduct of the edu- 
cational process itself. 

To understand fully the position and progress of education 
in the United States, a clear distinction must be drawn 
between the activities of the State, the American people 
viewed as an organized unit, and those of the Government, 
the specific agencies and powers created by the State, through 
the Constitution, to accomplish certain definite purposes, 
which, taken together, are the ends or aims of government. 
Whatever is done by the State or in the State's interest, 
whether it be carried out by a governmental agency or not, 
is public; whatever is done by the Government is presumably 
public, and certainly tax-supported. Much of the educa- 
tional activity of the United States is truly public but in no 
wise governmental. For example, the United States pos- 
sesses no university maintained by the National Government, 
but it possesses a half-dozen national universities. Important 
educational undertakings of various kinds are carried on in 
the sphere or domain of liberty side by side with those which 
are carried on in the sphere or domain of government. The 
true test, in the American system, of a public institution or 
activity is the purpose which it serves, and not the form of 
its control or the source of its financial support. That 
is pubhc which springs from the public and serves the pub- 



vi Introduction 

lie; that is governmental which springs from the Govern- 
ment and is administered by the Government. In other 
words, the sphere of public activity is larger than that of 
governmental activity. 

By far the largest part, and an increasingly large part, 
of the educational activity of the United States is govern- 
mental. It is this governmental educational activity with 
which the present volume deals. It brings together, in con- 
siderable part for the first time, a large mass of carefully 
ordered material bearing upon the evolution and present 
condition of educational administration, and it presents, in a 
form valuable either for study or for reference, the present 
state of educational administration in the United States, so 
far as that administration is governmental in form. 

Few things in American history are more impressive than 
the devotion of the American people to education, and their 
sincere belief in its efficacy as an agency of moral and intel- 
lectual regeneration. This devotion and this belief are at 
times almost heroic and at times almost pathetic. The sac- 
rifices made both by communities and by individuals on 
behalf of education in the United States are literally incal- 
culable. To enter the teaching profession as a life career 
is, in a vast majority of cases, consciously to devote one's 
self to a missionary undertaking without hope of adequate 
material reward. This spirit of sacrifice, public and private, 
gives to American education much of its finest quality, and 
has thus far kept it elevated above and out of the mire of 
a bhnd materialism. 

The idealism of the American people is reflected in their 
educational systems and institutions. To study those systems 
and institutions in detail is to come to a closer and fuller 
knowledge of the life and deeper characteristics of the 
American people. 

NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 

Columbia University 
June 24, 1908 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Introductory i 

II. Factors favoring the Advance of Education/ . 12 

III. The National Government and Education . . 25 

IV. The State and Education 41 

V. American States and Educational Administration 54 

VI. Local Units of Educational Administration . . 73 
VII. Problems growing out of State and Local Ad- 
ministration OF Education g6 

VIII. City School Systems 120 

IX. The Administration of City School Systems . . 137 
X. The Financing of Public Education . . . . 144 
XI. The Schoolhouse: Its Construction and Adapta- 
tion 172 

XII. The Schoolhouse {Continued) 187 

XIII. Text-books and Supplies 208 

XIV. The Superintendent of Public Instruction . . 230 
XV. The Teaching Staff 241 

XVI. The Improvement of Teachers in Service . . 276 
XVII. The Supervision of Kindergartens and Elementary 

Schools 300 

XVIII. The Elementary Course of Study .... 314 

XIX. Grading and Promotion . . . . . . 341 

XX. The Administration of High Schools . . . 356 

XXI. The Administration of Normal Schools . . . 386 

XXII. The Administration of Vocational Education . 404 

XXIII. The Administration of Physical Education - . . 426 

XXIV. The Administration of Correctional Education . 445 
XXV. Administration of Education for Defective and 

Subnormal Children . . . . ^ . 468 
vii 



viii Contents 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXVI. Administration of Evening and Continuation 

Schools 480 

XXVII. Compulsory Education and Child Labor Legis- 
lation 492 ^^ 

XXVIII. School Discipline and Government . . • Sn 
XXIX. Educational Statistics: Finance .... 521 
XXX. Educational Statistics: School Records and Re- 
ports 535 

XXXI. The Widening Sphere of Public Education . . 559 ^ 

XXXII. The School and Society 582 

Index 597 



ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 
IN THE UNITED STATES 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF AMERICAN 

SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER I 

Public education has played so vital a part in the advance- 
ment of the people in the United States that its history can- 
not be segregated from the story of our national progress. 
While a wilderness was being conquered and hostile forces 
were being overcome, while a greater and freer nation than 
the world has ever seen was being established, while the peo- 
ple were keeping pace with the most rapid industrial and 
commercial development which history has yet recorded, the 
ideal of free education has been a beacon light to all who de- 
sired that the nation be high minded and true hearted as well 
as rich and powerful. As sunshine and shower enrich and 
gladden everything which the soil produces, so the moral and 
intellectual life of the people of this new empire has been re- 
fined, quickened, and uplifted by universal education. The 
past century has seen the people's schools relating themselves 
to every movement for human betterment and happiness. 
Never losing sight of the beautiful, the good, and the true, the 
schools have sought to give to human life health, joy, effi- 
ciency, and social completeness. 

Educational Inheritances. — To state what school adminis- 
tration is, what it has done, and what it ought to accomplish 
in the future, is by no means an easy task, and whoever at- 
tempts it deserves a considerable degree of consideration and 
indulgence. There is required a fair amount of perspective 
and proportion. As every new achievement in education is 
written upon the background of the past, so the historical 



2 Educational Administration 

element cannot be omitted in estimating and weighing the 
most practical phases of modern educational work. The new 
education is not new except as it summons to its aid those 
theories and beliefs which, many times expressed, have never 
been given an opportunity to prove their validity. The only 
conceit in which educational leaders of to-day may safely in- 
dulge is that of studious endeavor to use the great opportu- 
nities which they have inherited. The ground has been cleared 
by those who have gone before, the hardest battles have been 
fought, and days of prosperity and peace permit the freest 
possible use of money and talent. Thought and opinion 
flash across the continent, producing the same social mind 
and giving increasing unity of purpose in the whole field of 
education and philanthropy. If in the chapters to follow 
much importance is given to types of administrative effort 
and achievement, it is because it is only in this way that the 
materials can be brought within the compass of a single 
volume. 

The Prominence of Education in American Life. — The 
American people have ever looked upon education as some- 
thing very necessary to their prosperity and welfare. The 
English colonists brought with them the idea that edu- 
cation and religion are two inseparable factors. They left 
the Mother-land at a time when grammar schools and Latin 
schools were being rapidly multiplied, so that increasing 
numbers of youth were given the advantage of that train- 
ing which led to the university. Under the impulse of this 
movement for higher education, and feeling the necessity of 
educating ministers in order that the rehgious welfare of the 
colonies might be guarded, our fathers at once proceeded to 
establish similar schools. The Dutch settlers of New York 
also entertained like views, and we find them making early 
and definite efforts to provide proper instruction for their 
children. 

Beginnings. — To the modern student of education these 
early provisions for schools seem narrow and insufficient. 
Not only was the curriculum mediaeval in character, but the 
whole conception was undemocratic. The Latin and gram- 



Introductory 3 

mar schools were for the wealthy and higher class of citizens, 
and the dame schools were for the poorer or working class. 
But the former, however narrow and illiberal they were, be- 
came the forerunners of the academies and high schools of 
the nation, while the latter were the germ of the common or 
elementary free schools which are now so important a part of 
our educational system. In certain sections of the United 
States the caste spirit has persisted, and private schools have 
always held a place of considerable importance. 

Back of all these early educational endeavors were the 
faith and heroism of people who had sacrificed much and 
were fully committed to the great task of establishing a 
commonwealth on this continent. This faith and this hero- 
ism have never failed. Through many years of stress and 
struggle, while war had to be waged with hostile Indians, 
and when the resources of the people were nearly exhausted 
in the battle for independence, the torch of education was 
not suffered to go out or to become greatly dimmed. The 
schoolhouse and the church stood together. The clergyman 
and the schoolmaster labored side by side, the one usually 
the intellectual leader in the community and recognized as 
the official guide and defender of the schools, and the other 
the true exponent of the spirit and intelligence of the times. 
In the schoolhouses of New England was born the de- 
mocracy which at length became invincible, and education 
was ever regarded as its chief corner-stone. 

Expansion. — As new states were formed, they promptly 
took up the work of supporting and controlling the schools. 
When by a union of the states the nation came into being, the 
policy of state control was not seriously questioned. The 
national government, being founded and guided by states- 
men who regarded education as of supreme importance, has 
always maintained a paternal attitude. Grants of money and 
land, and numerous other provisions of the national Congress 
have aided the states and have favored the rapid growth of 
educational agencies. The acquisition of our vast national 
domain, and the onward march of the conquering forces of 
civilization have been attended by a rapid and wonderful 



4 Educational Administration 

development of educational plant and equipment. There 
has been also a remarkable growth of new and pressing de- 
mands on behalf of industry, politics, science, art, domestic 
improvement, health, and human culture in its several forms. 
The promptitude and efficiency with which these various and 
extended demands have been met have excited the admiration 
of other nations. As we attempt to indicate the larger 
phases of this progress and show how great are the 
material, social, and political interests involved, no one will 
question that the administration of schools is a subject worthy 
a place in the university curriculum and deserving the at- 
tention of practical men and women who are called to serve 
the public in the educational field, either in a legislative or 
executive capacity. 

Variety of Form and Complexity of Function. — There is 
an unusual variety of form and complexity of function in 
American education, which makes its organization interesting 
if not simple. Many unsolved or half-solved problems call for 
continued, patient, and studious treatment. The fact that few 
things are absolutely settled compels open-mindedness and 
high professional enterprise. In the first place, there is a 
variety of control proceeding from the several political units 
which make up our system of government. The foreign 
observer finds it difficult to see an orderly plan when the 
district, the town, the city, the county, the state, and the 
nation all have a part, and an important part, to play in 
school support and oversight. Some of these units are of 
varying importance in different parts of the country. The 
method of administration is frequently subjected to change 
as new statutes and new charter provisions are enacted. 

There is also diversity of type caused by difference in 
people, physical conditions, productiveness, and industrial 
success. The schools of a prosperous city are bound to be 
different from those in a sparsely settled and unproductive 
section. They have generally been much superior. The 
modern problem is not how to make them alike, but how to 
render them equally good. Notwithstanding the disparity 
in condition, in resource, and environment, there has been a 



Introductory 5 

growing uniformity in motive and spirit, so that one visiting 
schools successively, in widely separated sections of the 
country, is surprised to find marked similarity in the school 
work. 

Rapid Progress in Recent Years. — The unprogressive na- 
ture of early ideals and the fact that schools continued for 
nearly one hundred and fifty years pursuing the same narrow 
curriculum call for no extended explanation here. Every- 
thing during that period was slow and backward, and a 
stream cannot rise higher than its source. It is only during 
the last century that the field of education has been broadened 
and enriched, and it may be truly said that the really notable 
reforms have been gained during the last half century. 

The reasons for the retarded movement at the beginning 
and the accelerated progress made in the last decades should 
always be kept in mind. Where the church has dominated 
the schools, there has been no quick and adequate response 
to the world's demands, political, industrial, social. More- 
over, the fact that the colonists were poor and were widely 
scattered over wild, undeveloped country did not favor rapid 
advancement. 

The growth of towns and cities under the industrial revo- 
lution of the last century, with the attendant manifold appli- 
cations of science and invention to labor-saving machinery, 
called for a more extensive provision for education, and at the 
same time increased the resources which contributed to its 
support. The conservatism and the vis inertice which had 
restrained progress could not stand before the onward trend 
of modern scientific ideas. Local pride, with the ability to 
gratify its desires, is a potent element in educational prog- 
ress. 

Ideals suffer Little Change. — Another fact to be remem- 
bered is that substantially the same ideals have influenced 
the minds of educational leaders during our entire history, 
but these ideals, by reason of changed conditions and en- 
larged vision, have grown and extended until they seem to 
be entirely new. For example, the religious motive still 
holds sway, but in a very different way from what it did a 



6 Educational Administration 

century ago. No longer is the Bible a text-book nor is the 
catechism a required study. On the other hand, wherever 
the Bible is read in public schools, no comment is permitted, 
and the inculcation of special religious views is eschewed. 
Yet there never was a time when moral character was more 
earnestly sought, or when righteousness in a large sense was 
more distinctly made the end and aim of teaching. The 
emphasis is placed upon life and conduct, and it must be 
admitted that in our schools and colleges there is more of 
moral earnestness. The general attitude of educational lead- 
ers and ethical teachers toward religious training of the young 
is a significant instance of the change which has affected 
disciplinary measures in the home and school. The purpose 
is the same in kind as that held by our fathers, but in its 
application there has been constant adjustment to the newer 
and modern view of what real goodness is. 

The civic ideal in education was not wanting in 'early days 
and it has never been overlooked. As the government, in 
adapting itself to new circumstances, has become more com- 
plex and paternal, so the duties and responsibilities of the 
citizen have been enjoined by all thoughtful teachers. 

The practical and economic ideals have also persisted. 
That the education of boys and girls must give efficiency, 
and that instruction must be directed to increasing the eco- 
nomic welfare of the community, has always held some place 
in the educational scheme ; but never has there been una- 
nimity as to what extent practical demands should be heeded. 
The great diversity of plan and differentiation of educational 
means seen to-day represents one stage in the working out 
of this problem and the demand for vocational improvement 
is another. 

The Work of Prophets, Leaders, and Philanthropists. — A 
constant factor in the development and growth of American 
education and the improvement of administration has been 
the active labors of men and women who were in a certain 
sense prophets and who were able to communicate their 
ideals and their aspirations to others. All the great move- 
ments recorded in history have been inspired by personality. 



Introductory 7 

Nearly all that the world has accomplished could be written 
in the form of biography. The mere mention of such names 
as " Alexander the Great," " Martin Luther," " Napoleon 
Bonaparte," " The Earl of Shaftesbury," immediately 
bring to mind the many and great events with which their 
lives were associated and in which they had a commanding 
part. Going back to the early years of the nineteenth cen- 
tury, we begin to find the names of men who saw possibilities 
in public education which had not been apprehended before. 
One of these was Denison Olmstead, who, on taking his Mas- 
ter's degree at Yale College, urged that the state should 
establish a training seminary for young schoolmasters and 
developed his plan quite fully, although there was no imme- 
diate result. This man who afterward became Professor of 
Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in Yale College was a 
real prophet. The Rev. Samuel R. Hall in 1823, in connec- 
tion with his work as a missionary in Concord, Vermont, put 
into practical operation the plan of normal instruction. He 
published a book which was widely circulated, and which 
must have been influential in awakening an interest in the 
professional side of education. Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet 
in 1825 published a pamphlet urging that in every state 
schools for the training of teachers should be established.^ 
His plan included an experimental school. Probably the 
name most worthy of credit for the educational revival in 
Massachusetts is that of James G. Carter.^ He wrote with a 
trenchant pen upon the neglected condition of the common 
schools, due, as he thought, to the fact that the attractions of 
a business career prevented many young men from becoming 
teachers. Having taken up this work of arousing popular in- 
terest in education, he continued to write and work, making 
many suggestions for the broadening and deepening of the 
school curriculum and on methods of organization. He was 
interested in the reforms of Pestalozzi and certain English 
writers. His views attracted wide attention and called forth 
much discussion in the reviews and periodicals of the time. 

1 Barnard, Normal Schools, p. 9. 

2 Barnard, A fjierican Journal of Education, Vol. X, p. 212. 



8 Educational AdTninistration 

He continued his efforts until in 1837 the first State Board of 
Education was organized in Massachusetts, of which he was a 
member. So active had he been in all steps looking toward 
educational reform, that it was supposed that he would be the 
first secretary of the board. Horace Mann,i who was elected 
to this position, was undoubtedly better qualified to do the work 
required than any other man of his time. He had been suc- 
cessful as a lawyer, and in leaving his profession to enter the 
educational field he had to make considerable sacrifices. This 
is not the place to record his great labors for education which 
immediately affected Massachusetts and eventually the whole 
country. Indeed, his reports were widely read in other coun- 
tries, and must have exerted considerable influence there. He 
is a most significant type of that class of persons who first in 
their own states and eventually in a wider area have given an 
impetus to free education by their zeal and prophetic vision. 

The work of Henry Barnard in Connecticut and Rhode 
Island and as the first United States Commissioner of Educa- 
tion should be mentioned in the same class with Horace Mann. 
We may name also John Swett, of California, John D. 
Philbrick, of Boston, William H. Ruffner, of Virginia, and 
William T. Harris, whose work as Superintendent of Schools 
in St. Louis set a remarkably high standard for city school 
administration and whose services as United States Com- 
missioner of Education enlarged the usefulness of the Bureau 
of Education. As a type of those who, although not actively 
engaged in educational work, yet from time to time propose 
plans for radical reform, Charles Francis Adams may be 
mentioned. Of all those whose work and teachings have 
affected elementary schools in America, Francis W. Parker 
is easily at the head. The work of President Eliot in dis- 
closing the weak points in every department of American 
teaching will long be held in the highest appreciation. The 
names of many women could be given to illustrate the value 
of personality in leadership. Mary Lyon and Mrs. Alice 
Freeman Palmer are good examples of this class. 

Stephen Girard, George Peabody, Samuel Slater, and Peter 

^ Hinsdale, Horace Mann and the Common School Revival, Chaps. 4-9. 



Introductory 9 

Cooper made their impress on American education by gen- 
erous benefactions. 

Andrew Carnegie, by his gift of ^15,000,000, providing 
retiring allowances for teachers in one hundred non-denomi- 
national institutions in the United States and Canada, has 
set in clear relief the principle that a system of education is 
not complete without some provision for the retirement of 
those teachers whose usefulness is largely diminished by 
sickness or old age. Gifts by the same gentleman for free 
pubhc libraries bear an equally close relation to popular 
education. The Carnegie Institute, as a capstone of our 
university system, places at the service of the teachers of 
the country such means for study and research as have never 
been available before. 

John D. Rockefeller, in addition to numerous other bene- 
factions, has given 1^35,000,000 to be expended by the 
general education board in aid of higher institutions in all 
parts of the United States. Whatever is done for the higher 
schools and colleges has a direct influence upon all lower 
schools, as it leads to the more complete and thorough train- 
ing of teachers. 

General S. C. Armstrong was a pioneer in what may justly 
be called "the higher education of the negro race." He 
and his able successor. Dr. H. B. Frissell, have evolved a 
type of industrial training which combines all the elements 
required in lifting backward peoples to a plane of intelli- 
gence, self-respect, and thrift. The Hampton School sends 
its graduates to all parts of the South, and is an object lesson 
to those seeking light upon the problem of how to educate 
toward vocational efficiency and not away from it. 

Dr. Booker T. Washington is at once the product and the 
best exponent of this idea. The administration of both the 
Hampton and Tuskegee schools is replete with lessons for 
all practical educators. 

The few names mentioned may be regarded as types of a 
large number of men and women, living and dead, who have 
enthusiastically devoted money and talent to the advance- 
ment of free education. A single page of this or any other 



lo Educational Administration 

volume on the administration of schools cannot properly be 
written without acknowledging the debt which is due them. 
School administration is not merely a description of ma- 
chinery, it is primarily a study of human evolution and the 
progress of communities toward a more highly civilized life. 
In its modern conception it knows no barriers and no restric- 
tions. It invokes the aid of the past and the present; it 
draws upon the great treasure-houses of culture ; it summons 
to its service men and women of generous hearts and conse- 
crated faith ; its emoluments are growing and its satisfactions 
are greater year by year. What its problems are and how 
they may best be solved, it is our purpose to point out in 
the following pages. 

REFERENCES 

Note. — The following abbreviations are used throughout the reference 
lists: Ed. Rev. (Educational Review); Sch. Rev. (School Review); Ed. 
(Education) ; N. E. A., or Proc. N. E. A. (Addresses and Proceedings of 
the National Education Association) ; C. R., or Rep. of Com. of Ed. (Annual 
Reports of the Department of the Interior, Commissioner of Education) ; 
An. Am. Acad. (Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social 
Science) ; etc. 

These reference lists are never intended to be exhaustive, nor do they 
always include the best material in the field, if that be accessible with dif- 
ficulty ; they are designed for the aid of the student who has access to 
ordinary college and normal school libraries. Many of the articles included 
are semi-popular, but exhibit definite phases of opinion which it is believed 
the student should take into account. 

Butler, N. M. Education in the United States. — Bryce, J. American 
Commonwealth. — Draper, A. S. National Systems of Education. N. Y. 
State Ed. Dept. Addresses and Papers, 1907: 109. — Boone, R. Educa- 
tion in the United States. — Dexter, E. G. History of Education in the 
United States, New York, 1904. — Martin, G. H. Evolution of the 
Massachusetts School System, New York, 1901. — Wright, C. D. In- 
dustrial Evolution of the United States. — Addams, J. Democracy and 
Social Ethics. — Macy, J. Twentieth Century Democracy, Pol. Sci. Quar. 
13: 514. — Monroe, P. History of Education, New York, 1905. — Russell, 
J. E. The Trend in American Education, Ed. Rev. 32: 28. — Winship, 
A. E. Great American Educators. — Hinsdale, B. A. Horace Mann and 
the Educational Revival. — Hovey, A. Barnas Sears. — Mann, Mrs. M. P. 
Life of Horace Mann. — Adler, F. Democratic Ideal in Education, Century, 
1889: 927. — Munger, T. T. Education and Social Progress, Century, 



Introductory 1 1 

1887 : 268. — Butler, N. M. The Progress of Educational Administration, 
Ed. Rev. 1906: 515. — Hadley, A. T. Methods and Principles of the Nine- 
teenth Century, Ed. Rev. 1904 : 325. — Thwing, C. F. Gifts to Education, 
Outlook, 1902:222. — Butler, N. M. Some Fundamental Principles of 
American Education, Ed. Rev. 1902: 187. — Scudder, V. D. Democracy 
and Education, Atl. Mo. 1901 : 816. — Thviring,C. F. Education in the West, 
Harper, 1892 : 715. — Hyde, W. D. Organization of Education, Ed. Rev. 
1892 : 209. — Cable, G. W. Education for the Common People, Cosmop. 
1893:63. — Dabney, C. W., Jr. Advance of Education in the South, 
Cosmop. 1892 : 531. — Carroll, C. F. Forces in Education, Ed. 1895 : 193. 

— Shavif, W. B. Education in the United States, Ed. Rev. 1 892 : 47. — Green- 
ough, J. J. Basis of our Educational System, Atl. Mo. 1894: 528. — Hen- 
derson, C. H. Aims of Modern Education, Pop. Sci. Mo. 1896:485.— 
Anderson, J. M. The Old and the New in Education, Ed. Rev. 1892 : 164. 

— Boone, R. G., Education in the United States. — Parker, Francis Way- 
land. C. R. 1902 : 231. 



CHAPTER II 



Factors favoring the Advance of Education 



To a population of about 85,000,000 it is predicted that we 
shall add during the next twenty years 20,000,000 or over, 
giving a total of 105,000,000. 

The wealth of the United States in 1900 was $88,517,- 
306,775; in 1904, $107,104,192,410; 1^18,586,885,635 equals 
the increase in four years. 

The report of the Commissioner of Education for 1906 
gives the following figures concerning expenditures for the 
year 1905-6 : — 

Total disbursements by the United States government 

(estimated) 

Estimated expenditure by the states 
Estimated expenditure by minor civil divisions 

Total public expenditure 
Public expenditure for common schools 
Expenditure for private elementary and secondary schools 

(partly estimated) ...... 

Expenditure for universities, colleges, and technological 

schools 

Expenditure for normal schools 

Expenditure for professional schools (partly estimated) 
Expenditure for schools for the defective classes 
Expenditure for reform schools 
Expenditure for commercial schools (estimated) 
Total expenditure for education 

Enrolled in public elementary schools 
Enrolled in public secondary schools . 
Enrolled in public universities and colleges 
Enrolled in public professional schools 
Enrolled in public normal schools 

Total 



Enrolled in special schools (public) 
Enrolled in special schools (private) 



1747,234,578 

130,000,000 

610,000,000 

$1487,234,578 

$307,765,659 

21,370,309 

44,783,326 
6,748,924 
3,000,000 

7,639,503 

5,381,189 

3,000,000 

)8,9io 

15,919,278 
741,950 

51,335 
11,572 

59,429 
16,783,564 

456,271 

302,395 



Factors favoring the Advance of Education 1 3 

These figures above quoted give some idea of the dimen- 
sions of the problem of education, taking the United States 
as a whole. They show how great the nation has become, 
and how energetically the people have pushed forward all 
those means which make for popular intelligence. At the 
same time figures are but a skeleton of the truth. In order 
to gain a just conception of the content of our subject, we 
must review briefly the last century and see how various 
forces have operated to hasten the settlement of the whole 
country ; what ideals, social inheritance, and political aims 
have been dominant — in short, what factors have proven 
favorable to the advance of education and the more impor- 
tant steps which have marked that advance toward the present 
interesting situation. 

The Increase of Wealth through the Extension of Agricul- 
ture and Industry. — While the settlers and pioneers of the 
nation were practically all engaged in tilling the soil, and 
hence were widely scattered, or were carrying on such domes-, 
tic industries as their poverty and the requirements of food, 
clothing, and shelter compelled them to provide, there was no 
problem of school administration in the modern sense. A 
highly developed social order was not possible, and the treat- 
ment of schools was individualistic, thus partaking of the 
character of the people themselves. Until the War of the Rev- 
olution and for some time afterwards, the towns and villages 
took no sharp departure from the primitive methods of the 
eighteenth century. War had prostrated industry and trade, 
money was scarce, and the times were hard. School reforms 
in Germany and the teachings of Pestalozzi were generally 
unknown or had made no special impression. The new 
industry came long before the new education; in fact, it was 
because of prosperity and increasing wealth that it became 
possible to secure great educational changes. Much head- 
way had been made in England in the eighteenth century in 
applying labor-saving machinery to textile manufactures, when 
at length, in spite of drastic laws and most strenuous efforts on 
the part of the English government to prevent the bringing 
of the designs for textile machinery to America, Samuel 



14 Educational Administration 

Slater came over, bearing in his retentive memory the neces- 
sary plans. He constructed the first loom for the spinning 
of cotton at Pawtucket/ making the machinery principally 
with his own hands, in 1790, which becomes a very impor- 
tant date in the calendar of American progress. In 1794 
Eli Whitney invented the cotton-gin. In 18 14 Mr, Francis 
C. Lowell erected at Waltham a factory containing a full set 
of machinery for weaving and spinning.^ This introduction 
of the factory system in America was the beginning of an 
industrial development in the New World such as has never 
been equalled. 

New Means of Transportation. — Parallel with the rapid 
growth of labor-saving machinery applied to all departments 
of labor went new and more rapid means of transportation 
through the railroad and the steamboat. The first railroad 
train propelled by steam made its initial journey in 1832, 
and the first steamboat began to run in 1808. Here, indeed, 
were the beginnings of an industrial revolution which was to 
transform the continent, making every part of it easy of 
access so that new territories could be quickly populated and 
new states organized. As the productive lands of the West 
were thus opened to settlers, agriculture began her impres- 
sive progress from ocean to ocean. While vast areas were 
clothed with corn and wheat, towns and cities were springing 
up along the streams, on the Great Lakes, and wherever on 
the railroads the conditions favored the growth of market 
towns or county seats. A comparison of the state of the 
country in the middle of the eighteenth century with that in 
the middle of the nineteenth century would reveal a mighty 
change. The tide of immigration had set in. Manufacturing 
villages were seen everywhere in New England and were be- 
ginning to exist in the Middle states. Boston, New York, Phil- 
adelphia, and Baltimore showed the effects of the new indus- 
trial and commercial impetus in greatly increased population. 

Many new and secondary cities were springing up at 
advantageous points, like St. Louis, Chicago, and Cincinnati. 

1 Wright, Industrial Evolution of the United States, p. 126. 

2 Wright, p. 131. 



Factors favoring the Advance of Education 1 5 

With remarkable celerity machinery was invented for the 
manufacture of all kinds of useful articles formerly made by 
hand, such as furniture, household utensils, farm implements, 
carriages, as well as all kinds of textiles, clothing, and small 
wares. Good taste and artistic finish were often wanting, 
and the quality of manufactured goods was very far behind 
that of those made by hand ; but the spirit of invention, 
enterprise, and money-making animated the entire people. 
What we have long called the " American spirit " made itself 
felt alike on the plains of the West, in the productive planta- 
tions of the South, and on the mountains of the Pacific coast 
where the search for the precious metals drew eager hordes 
of men who had to bear all kinds of hardship, but out of 
whose ranks came some of the great commercial leaders and 
builders of the continent. 

Persistence of the Educational Ideal. — But the absorption 
of the American people in their great struggles with nature 
and the ever increasing opportunities of successful enterprise 
did not dim their desire to educate the youth of the land for 
their duties as men and citizens. The blood which had been 
shed to free the nation had sealed the pledge that it should 
be an intelligent, self-governing nation. Since the day of 
the Declaration of Independence, free schools had become 
assured. They were not to exist for the personal advance- 
ment of the few, but were to be the birthright of every boy 
and girl born on American soil. Industry and commerce 
could not prosper, the professions would languish, and the 
ideals of a God-fearing people would fail if schools were not 
multiplied and organized and ever and ever made more 

. effective. 

^ State Education. — It came gradually to be seen that the 
state rather than the church was competent to insist upon a 
modicum of training for every child, irrespective of religious 
creed, and that public funds could not wisely be applied to 
support other than non-sectarian schools. This beneficent 
and far-sighted provision, however it may have been chal- 
lenged by some, is seen by a vast majority of patriotic citizens 
to be a chief corner-stone of our educational system. May 



1 6 Educational Administration 

we not say, therefore, that those influences and forces which 
established freedom, peopled a continent, and brought peace, 
prosperity, and wealth, were at the same time preparing the 
ground for an educational system which is to be more ver- 
satile, more highly differentiated, and better adapted to indi- 
vidual and social needs than any other in the world ? 

The Growth of State Action. — But the rapid and successful 
accomplishment of problems in pioneering settlement and in- 
dustry was only one element in the constructive movement 
for good schools. The organization of new states with the 
renewed opportunity of utilizing the experience of other and 
older states and of making the best possible laws for schools is 
perhaps the most fortunate of all circumstances. Even in 
the constitutions of states there has been historical progres- 
sion. Massachusetts sounded the note of religious faith in 
the intrinsic importance of education. The same sentiment 
is seldom wanting in the constitutions of the newer states, 
but there are added also more advanced conceptions of the 
civic, social, and practical value of common schools. The 
general aloofness of the national government in the control 
of schools has tended to enhance and magnify the respon- 
sibility of the states. Each of the forty-six states or common- 
wealths which comprise the Union has solved its own problems 
and worked out its own educational destiny. In earlier days 
there were vast differences in the amount and the quality of the 
provision made for schools, as regards both the intelligence 
and expertness of their administration ; but in recent decades 
the whole tendency has been toward common ideals, the 
same statutory requirements and similar methods, so that 
as far as spirit and intention are concerned the national 
motto, " E pluribus unum," is applicable to American free 
education. The National Education Association, the publica- 
tions of the national bureau, educational literature, the free 
and swift communication between the different sections of 
the country, and the influence of colleges and universities 
have all tended to create a good degree of unity. It is true 
that in length of school year, compulsory attendance, methods 
of taxation and distribution of funds, certification of teachers 



Factoids favoring the Advance of Educatio7i 1 7 

and other minor matters, there are still wide variations in 
actual practice ; but each year sees some advance in nearly 
every state toward those standards which are regarded as 
ideal. 

Patriotic Ardor for Free Schools. — Such European observers 
as De Tocqueville and James Bryce have taken notice of the 
quick response made by the citizens of the United States to 
the responsibilities of self-government. Even the immigrant, 
who has known quite different governmental conditions, is 
soon moved by the ardor of a new-born patriotism. He likes 
the country, the flag, the higher wages, and rejoices especially 
in the free schools where his children may learn those arts 
and acquire that knowledge which shall set them in the high- 
way to self-support, prosperity, and, perchance, honor and 
preferment. Every candidate for office, every orator and 
legislator, is impelled to commit himself to the advocacy of a 
generous provision for public schools. The reactionary and 
the conservative are seldom triumphant in the long run. If 
rank extravagance is committed, it receives its proper rebuke; 
but few communities are willing to stand still very long and 
see the procession moving on in the distance. 

Again, in a democratic government like ours, free schools 
appeal fervently to all who work with their hands. Here is 
one channel through which the unused increment of wealth 
flows back to the toiler who has helped to produce that 
wealth. No other institution tends to soothe and allay the 
suspicion felt by the wage-earner toward capital as does the 
fact that his children's schools provide what he could not 
pay for, and for these great benefits capital is heavily taxed. 
In no other country is there so definite a purpose to make 
the public schools good enough for both rich and poor, and 
it becomes increasingly difficult for private schools to supply 
those newer forms of training now considered essential to 
complete education. Many of those who send their children 
to private institutions or to church schools do so for other 
reasons than because they esteem them as more excellent 
than the public schools. It is often the case, however, that 
persons of wealth and position, even though they do not 



1 8 Educational Admi7tistration 

patronize the public schools, are their friends and champions 
and are willing to serve on boards of education. The sen- 
timent for universal education has a compelling power which 
sways legislatures and city councils. The youth of to-day 
are the statesmen of to-morrow, and each phalanx of new 
voters brings to the suffrage larger and more generous views 
concerning the lengths to which people may be taxed to meet 
the ever growing modern demands. 

New Methods of Administration. — The science of admin- 
istration, whether of business affairs or of government, has 
advanced rapidly of late, and the human element in execu- 
tive control is at a high valuation. In the midst of vast 
aggregations of machinery and complicated devices for the 
speedy and skilful accomplishment of labor, the trained, 
directive intelligence stands forth as, after all, the most 
impressive product of modern times. However stupendous 
the undertaking, one mind is supreme. In the bank, 
the factory, the railroad, and the industrial corporation, 
one head, who by natural ability and superior training is 
competent, directs the entire enterprise. In him is con- 
centrated all needed authority and responsibility. To his 
lieutenants, chosen with equal care, is delegated a certain set 
of duties. They become so many additional hands and 
feet of their chief, and thus extend the scope of his power 
and effectiveness. It is fortunate that the centralization 
of executive power, so necessary to honesty and efficient 
management, should have been widely demonstrated in the 
business world before states, cities, or school systems had 
anything like the volume of business which they are called 
upon to perform to-day. It is easier for private concerns 
or business corporations to choose direct and economical 
methods of administration than for those who are placed in 
power by a political party and have many debts to pay and 
many interests to serve. It is not so much that politicians 
are dishonest as it is that they follow a habit and a tradition 
of serving self and their friends first and the public last. 
At all events the struggle for free government and the 
proper placing of responsibility is well under way. As great 



Factors favori7tg the Advance of. Edtication 19 

school systems are being developed, it is most fortunate 
that there are plenty of object lessons of centralized and 
sound government both in the field of industry and com- 
merce and in the states and municipal governments of 
Europe. It is true also that in national, state, and city con- 
duct of affairs a signal change for the better has been 
wrought. A far larger number of officers are appointive 
than formerly. Functions once undertaken by town boards, 
city councils, or large commissions are now performed by a 
single officer. A good example of this practice is seen in 
the commissioners of police, streets, docks, and health in 
New York City. In such cases the responsibility can be 
definitely located. The officer cannot shirk it. The power 
of removal lodged in the mayor enables the public to look to 
him for redress if good service is not rendered. The plea 
of great cities for absolute home rule is an exploded theory. 
So identical are their interests, social, political, and financial, 
with those of the state in which they are located that the 
people may properly ask the legislature for such charter 
provisions and such statutes as tend to make the government 
of the city contribute to the welfare of the entire state. 
Many American cities are passing through a transition 
period, and are adopting those changes in administration 
which will not only prevent dishonesty and the misuse of 
public funds, but will give their citizens the blessings of 
health, security, economy, and comfort. Such distressing 
instances of malfeasance and moral turpitude as have been 
seen recently in Philadelphia, Minneapolis, St. Louis, and 
San Francisco ought never to occur again, if states, by the 
powers which they possess, pattern the charters of every city 
after those models which have proven their efficacy both at 
home and abroad. This new movement, so well advanced, 
for simplified and efficient administration of affairs of a 
private as well as a public nature, is influencing school 
systems, whether large or small. The value of centralized 
control and expert direction is sure to be seen and accepted 
as a safe and sane principle. 

Growth of the Civil Service. — But there is another principle 



20 Ed'cicational Administration 

of government almost equally fundamental which has already 
revolutionized political control, and is well intrenched in the 
field of educational administration, and that is the practice 
and extension of the v':ivil service. Under its rules a man or 
a woman is appointed for merit only, is secure in his or her 
position and cannot be deprived of it except for cause duly 
shown. A brief history of this movement is pertinent to this 
discussion, for the civil service is bound to become a universal 
feature in educational control. The adoption of this idea 
means permanency of tenure for every American teacher, and 
this is the first cardinal ingredient of professional pride and 
ambition. Teaching is largely a spiritual work. Its best 
fruits are often unseen at the time. It requires freedom from 
anxiety, concentrated interest, and consecration. These quali- 
ties cannot be present if the teacher is subject to the caprices 
of politics or the machinations of those who may have taken 
offence. As long as one does his work honestly and well, he 
should have the courage and confidence which spring from 
security and permanency. The teacher in France and Ger- 
many is given professional status in many ways, but the fact 
that he has a life tenure is doubtless the most cherished feature 
of his position. We do not hesitate to say that expert adminis- 
tration and civil service regulations for teachers are destined 
to be prime factors in the working out and perfecting of our 
educational scheme. 

The Influence of European Education. — There can be no 
doubt that education in the United States owes a considerable 
debt to Europe for what it has accomplished. Some, at least, 
of the founders of the republic were university men, and 
brought with them from their several countries ideas which 
were of value here. The Puritans transplanted the best 
forms of English education of their time ; many of them were 
college men. The Quakers, the Dutch, the Huguenots, the 
Scotch-Irish, and the Moravians also brought with them high 
educational traditions, and immediately put them into effect. 

The early English academies were transplanted to this 
country after the Revolution, partly through the influence of 
Franklin, George Whitefield, and Mary Lyon. The English. 



Factors favoring the Advance of Education 2 3 

methods of instruction. So in Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, 
and Holland one finds many evidences of careful organiza- 
tion and a high degree of pedagogical skill. In spirit these 
schools are a little more like those in the United States, and 
the visitor might almost imagine that he were in New York, 
Chicago, or Milwaukee. In these small systems there is 
more mobility and a freer adaptation of means to end than 
in either France or Germany. It is evident that each nation 
has an ideal which has developed through successive eras of 
educational progress, and which is expressive of what the 
nation as represented by its government desires to accomplish 
for its citizens. 

The American Ideal. — Without any extended discussion of 
this point it is safe to say that in the United States, more 
than in the countries mentioned, there is a rapid adjustment 
to new conditions, whether caused by growth in population, 
increased wealth, or new and more scientific insights.^ The 
ideal to which the whole nation is committed is " the education 
of all the people for service and for citizenship." There is no 
ulterior purpose in this, as, for example, that youth may be 
trained to serve the state, either as soldiers or merchants or 
craftsmen. The nation desires more than anything else 
men and women who can take their part bravely and wisely, 
and who can help to build a society fit to possess and enjoy 
the blessings of freedom and self-government. Nowhere are 
there such opportunities for individual growth and advance- 
ment ; nowhere is the higher education so freely and univer- 
sally bestowed ; nowhere have the people so direct a voice in 
determining what public education shall be and with what 
generosity of expenditure it shall be administered. As will 
be seen in the pages to follow, there is in American educa- 
tion a large admixture of human sympathy and philanthropy. 
In rapid succession, various phases of educational endeavor 
which have been instituted by social reformers have been 
taken on by school systems and the expense therefor pro- 
vided from the public exchequer. The most powerful dy- 
namic in American educational progress is the sense of 

1 Draper, " National Systems of Education," Encyclopcedia Americana. 



24 Educational Administration 

national and state pride and the firm belief that popular 
education is the best investment a nation can make for her 
moral greatness and the welfare of her people. 

REFERENCES 

Coman, K. The Industrial History of the United States. — Clark and 
Giddings. The Modern Distributive Process. — Ware, F. Educational 
Foundations of Trade and Industry. — Taylor, G. R. Industrial Education 
and National Prosperity, Char, and the Com. XIX: 1579. — Wells, H. G. 
Recent Economic Changes. — Mulhall, M. G. Industries and Wealth of 
Nations. — Strong, J. Social Progress (1904). — Wright. C. D. Practical 
Sociology. — Brooks, J. G. The Social Unrest. — Wright, C. D. Some 
Ethical Phases of the Labor Question. — Turner, F. J. Contributions of 
the West to American Democracy, Atl. Mo. 91 : 83 (1903). — Adams, B. 
America's Economic Supremacy. — Mayo, A. D. The American Common 
School System in New England from 1790 to 1840, C. R. 1895:1551. — 
Butler, N. M. Education and Democracy. — Rose, W. The Educational 
Movement in the South, C. R. 1903 : 359. — Mayo, A. D. Education in the 
Northwest during the First Half Century of the Republic, C. R. 1895 : 1513. 
— Butler, N. M. The Meaning of Education. 



CHAPTER III 

The National Government and Education 

The national government has not undertaken to control or 
to directly provide for the support of public instruction. The 
Constitution of the United States confers upon Congress no 
direct power over the public schools. As all powers not del- 
egated to Congress are reserved to the states or to the peo- 
ple, the care of public education has been assumed definitely 
and positively by the several states. At the same time, it is 
wrong to assume, as is sometimes done, that the national gov- 
ernment has neglected education and has done but little in aid 
of the support of schools and higher institutions. From the 
very beginning Congress has legislated generously in aid of 
both elementary and higher education, and the several depart- 
ments of the government have been increasingly active in the 
diffusion of useful knowledge among the people and in offer- 
ing at Washington the most ample and complete facilities for 
study and research in every department of scientific inquiry 
tending to help educational institutions in their work and to 
advance the economic interests of the country as a whole. 

Attempts to found a National University. — Strictly speak- 
ing, the United States has no national university, but the 
strenuous efforts made by George Washington and numerous 
other statesmen of his and later times to persuade Congress 
to establish and support such a great national institution con- 
stitutes one of the most illuminating chapters in our educa- 
tional history. No one can be familiar with the record of 
Washington's devoted labors in behalf of this measure with- 
out conceiving a new admiration for the man and for his sa- 
gacious appreciation of the educational needs of the country 
in his time. With the eye of the prophet he saw the remark- 

25 



26 EdMcatio7ial Administration 

able possibilities of the country and the place which it was to 
take among the nations of the earth. He saw the strug- 
gling colleges of that time with their meagre curricula and 
limited equipment. He realized that in a land of such prom- 
ise there should be leaders equipped with the best training to 
be found in a true university. Realizing that only a few were 
likely to go abroad for study in the universities of Europe, he 
urged that the nation provide as rapidly as possible at the na- 
tional capital for advanced study. He never lost sight of this 
conviction. His addresses and letters seldom omitted refer- 
ence to it. He selected the site for a university in the city of 
Washington, and finally in his will left a bequest of $25,000 in 
the form of valuable securities as a beginning of an endow- 
ment. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison also were 
equally earnest and enthusiastic in their advocacy of this 
measure. So great was the popular interest in it that as 
early as 1795 subscriptions to the amount of $30,000 were 
received. Practically every Congress since that time has 
given some consideration to the proposition for a na- 
tional university. Several of the learned societies of the 
country have favored it, notably the National Education As- 
sociation. This association in 1869 appointed a permanent 
committee, and the subject was agitated vigorously from that 
time until 1901. It is hard to explain why a measure so pop- 
ular in character and so warmly seconded by leading men in 
all departments of public life should not at length have won 
the assent of Congress. In the meantime, several universities 
have sprung into existence. To Johns Hopkins, more than to 
any other institution, is due the credit for setting the example 
of what a true university in America should be. Moreover, 
the discussion for more than a hundred years of the university 
project has been a powerful influence in determining the 
future educational policy of the nation. 

The City of Washington as an Educational Centre. — The 
steps taken to organize the George Washington Memorial 
Association and the founding of the Carnegie Institute are 
events too recent to need extended comment. There can be 
no doubt that the founder of the Carnegie Institute was led 



The National Government and Education 27 

to make his generous gift largely because the great national 
need had been so often and so earnestly expressed. Doubt- 
less many people were disappointed that he did not directly 
endow a national university. But with his usual far-sighted- 
ness he determined to do nothing to disturb the growth and 
influence of existing institutions. On the other hand, the 
Carnegie Institute, working in cooperation with all the uni- 
versities in the land, with all the learned societies, and with 
the departmental bureaus and libraries in Washington, fills a 
place in our educational system which no university could have 
filled. Indirectly its beneficent influence will be felt by every 
college and high school teacher in the land. 

Facilities for Study in Washington. — In 1892 a resolution 
was approved by Congress whereby facilities for research and 
investigation in all libraries, bureaus, literary and scientific 
collections were made accessible to scientific investigators, and 
students in the District of Columbia. On March 3, 1901, a 
still better and more definite provision was made by an act 
which read as follows : — 

" That facilities for study and research in the government departments, 
the Library of Congress, the National Museum, the Zoological Park, the 
Bureau of Ethnology, the Fish Commission, the Botanic Gardens, and 
similar institutions hereafter established shall be afforded to scientific inves- 
tigators and to duly qualified individual students and graduates of institu- 
tions of learning in the several states and territories, as well as in the 
District of Columbia, under such rules and restrictions as the heads of the 
departments and bureaus mentioned may prescribe." 

Some reference will be made later to the vast educa- 
tional significance of the work carried on by the government. 
In closing this brief statement regarding a national university, 
it may be affirmed that Congress was never truly hostile to 
the idea. The same regard for the value of encouraging local 
initiative and action and the fear that existing institutions 
might be overshadowed were a university organized and sup- 
ported by the national government, were the principal reasons 
for the conservatism which prevailed. 

Acts of Congress in Aid of Popular Education. — The admin- 
istration of schools in every state in the Union has been more 



28 Educational Administration 

or less affected by gifts of land from the national government. 
The old English custom of supporting schools by such gifts 
was well understood by the early colonists, for in 1677 the 
general court of Connecticut voted six hundred acres of land 
to each of four counties for the support of grammar schools. 
At the beginning of the Revolutionary War, the states of 
Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia laid claim to all the 
land extending from the western boundary of those states to 
the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes. It became evident 
at length that these lands must be nationalized, and these 
states ceded them to Congress. As the time came for the 
organization of new states, Congress was led to adopt that 
generous policy which gave an immense impetus to the move- 
ment for popular education. In 1785 an ordinance was 
adopted which defined the method of laying out townships and 
subdividing them into lots of 640 acres each, these lots to be 
numbered from one to thirty-six. This ordinance closed with 
the significant words : — 

" There shall be reserved the lot number sixteen of every township 
for the maintenance of public schools within the said township." 

In 1787 this purpose of the national government to aid 
common schools was made more definite and effective by an 
ordinance for the government of the territory of the United 
States northwest of Ohio, which was introduced by the 
following famous preamble : — 

" Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good govern- 
ment and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of educa- 
tion shall be forever encouraged." 

This ordinance provided, as did the one of the previous year, 
that lot number sixteen in each township or fractional part of 
the township was to be given perpetually for schools ; that lot 
number twenty-nine in each township or fractional part of the 
township should be given for the purpose of religion ; that 
not more than two complete townships were to be given for the 
purpose of a university. Thus the ordinances of 1785 and of 
1787 were parts of one and the same provision, and the policy 



The National Government and Education 29 

herein expressed became permanent and universal. All states 
west of the Alleghany Mountains have been beneficiaries 
under this legislation except West Virginia, Kentucky, Ten- 
nessee, and Texas.i The question whether these lands, 
donated for the support of schools, should be under national 
or state control was settled in 1803 by an act which vested in 
the legislature of Michigan all lands granted to that state. 
While some states have attempted to redistribute these lands 
in some other manner than that specified by Congress, all 
such attempts have failed. 

As certain portions of states and certain fractional townships 
were left unprovided for because these tracts of land had 
thus been disposed of, an act was passed in 1826 providing 
that all townships or fractional townships for which no land 
had hitherto been granted, should be endowed in accordance 
with the legislation cited above. Not only did this legislation 
provide a handsome endowment for common schools, but 
provision was also made for state universities and others. 
Thus in 1841, in lieu of the grants of swamp lands made to 
certain states in 1850, specific quantities of land were given 
to other states for the support of their higher institutions. 
The assignment made to ^ South Dakota is here given as 
typical of the way in which the nation treated several other 
states : — 

'' For the school of mines, forty thousand acres ; for the reform school, 
forty thousand acres ; for the deaf and dumb asylum, forty thousand acres ; 
for the agricultural college, forty thousand acres ; for the university, forty 
thousand acres ; for state normal schools, eighty thousand acres ; for public 
buildings at the capital of said state, fifty thousand acres ; and for such 
other educational and charitable purposes as the legislature of said state 
may determine, one hundred and seventy thousand acres ; in all, five 
hundred thousand acres." 

This line of beneficent legislation was not allowed to pass 
without protest from some states which were not included, as, 
for example, Maryland, New Hampshire, and Vermont ; but 
the matter soon dropped, and a larger patriotism seems to have 

1 C. R. 1892-1893; 1270. 2 c. R. 1892-1893; 1273. 



30 Educational Adininistration 

moulded the public opinion of the nation in favor of what 
Congress had done. 

In 1803 the provisions of the ordinance of 1787 were ex- 
tended to the states of the Mississippi territory ; so that not 
only common schools, but the state universities of this section 
have been effectively aided. Thus it has come to pass that 
since the year 1800 each state admitted to the Union, with the 
exception of Maine, Texas, and West Virginia, has received 
two or more townships for the purpose of founding a univer- 
sity. 

Distribution of Surplus Revenue. — Another piece of legis- 
lation of educational importance occurred in 1836 when 
Congress distributed the surplus funds in the national treasury 
to the several states according to the number of representa- 
tives which they had in Congress. While freedom was per- 
mitted in the use of these funds, three-fourths, at least, of the 
states voted to assign the larger part of their quota to educa- 
tion. The entire amount thus paid to twenty-seven states 
was upwards of twenty-eight millions of dollars. 

Grants of Land and Money for Colleges of Agriculture and 
Mechanic Arts. — In 1862 Congress passed a bill granting to 
each state 30,000 acres of land for each senator and represent- 
ative in Congress for the maintenance of agricultural schools. 
President Lincoln signed this important measure on July 2, 
1862. With the incentive offered by this act of Congress, 
each state has been able to maintain a higher institution 
which, in some measure at least, has answered to the condi- 
tions enjoined. The states have added largely to the funds 
which came from the sale of public lands. Private citizens and 
municipalities have contributed to these endowments, thus 
making a chain of institutions which have already accom- 
plished much, and which are likely to contribute largely to our 
national growth. In 1903 there were reported to be forty- 
nine agricultural and mechanical land-grant colleges endowed 
by Congress. Courses in agriculture are given in each state 
and territory, though in some cases the instruction is given at 
the agricultural stations. The total number of students re- 
ported at the same time was 50,799, of which 6080 were en- 



The National Government and Edtication 31 

rolled in institutions for colored students. The amounts of 
invested funds derived from the sale of lands granted under 
the act of 1862 is $11,213,593. The total amount of the 
property belonging to these institutions is upward of 
$72,000,000, which is good evidence that the states have re- 
sponded generously in supporting and increasing the gifts 
of the nation. This is not the place to enlarge upon the 
many beneficent features of these land-grant institutions, or 
to point out the growing necessity in this country for the 
kind of education which they are intended to give. Agricul- 
ture would soon suffer were not science brought to bear to 
improve its methods and to restore the soils ; and among a 
people which is becoming more and more industrial in charac- 
ter, what has been done for technical education may properly 
be regarded as a small beginning toward the larger provision 
which will be necessary if we are to compete successfully 
with other nations. Congress now appropriates $25,000 
annually to each of these institutions and $15,000 to the 
agricultural stations of each state and territory as well. Here 
it is proper to add that the agricultural department at Wash- 
ington, being, as it is, in close affihation with the stations in 
several states, and with the institutions where agricultural in- 
struction is given, performs for the whole country somewhat 
the office of a central university. Its reports, which have 
been distributed freely, are full of instruction to farmers and 
its monthly bulletins enable those interested to quickly and 
easily obtain the latest information on all the problems of 
agriculture and stock-raising. The recent interest in the pro- 
priety of teaching agriculture in state normal schools to 
teachers who go out to the rural schools, thus providing that 
children and youth throughout the land may receive training 
in scientific farming and horticulture, only tends to magnify 
the importance of what the national government has done in 
endowing these land-grant institutions and supporting a de- 
partment whose activities touch so vitally the well-being not 
only of the agricultural class, who are the producers, but the 
entire people, who are the consumers. 

While the gifts to education already mentioned are the 



2,2 EdMcoJional Admmistration 

most important made by the national government, many other 
smaller appropriations have been made, several of them 
specific in character, some to states and others to institutions. 
In 1850 Congress granted to the several states certain swamp 
lands after having been redeemed.^ Many of the states de- 
voted these lands to the cause of education. The total amount 
thus patented to the states to 1876 amounted to 47,802,271 
acres. Some states, as, for instance, California, appropriated 
their share to state universities ; others added the proceeds 
to their general school funds. Several supplementary acts 
have since granted to certain states additional amounts of 
saline land. Congress has also appropriated both lands and 
money to Georgetown College, Columbian University, and 
Howard University, institutions located in the District of 
Columbia. 

Bureau of Education. — From 1864 to 1866 the need of a 
national Bureau of Education was agitated in the meetings of 
the National Educational Association, and in that year a bill, 
drawn up by Dr. Emerson E. White, was presented by General 
Garfield. On June 8 the bill was rejected by a close nega- 
tive vote, but on June 19 was passed and on March 2 received 
the President's approval. It should be noted that this act 
provided for a " Department of Education." In the follow- 
ing year this department was reduced to the rank of a bureau. 
The revised statutes provided that the function of the bureau 
should be "to collect statistics and facts showing the condition 
and progress of education in the several states and territo- 
ries, and to diffuse such information respecting the organization 
and management of schools and school systems and methods 
of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in the es- 
tablishing and maintenance of efficient school systems and other- 
wise promote the cause of education throughout the country." 
The first commissioner was Henry Barnard,^ and acting within 
the rather limited scope of the statutes above cited, he set a 
standard for the work of the bureau which has since been 
consistently sustained. 

1 Blackmar, History of Federal and State Aid Education, p. 53. 
2C. R. 1892-1893: 1288. 



The National Government ajtd Education 33 

The Reports of the Commissioner. — The reports published 
from year to year have been a veritable mine of knowledge 
concerning all important educational movements in this coun- 
try and abroad. Not only have they dealt with the ordinary 
statistical and administrative phases of educational progress, 
but special problems like the care and treatment of the defective 
and delinquent classes, the education of backward pupils, in- 
dustrial and trade education, the restriction of child labor, and 
all those newer forms of public educational work which have 
been developed in recent years. Each commissioner in suc- 
cession has found some new ways of making these reports 
valuable to teachers and school officers. Dr. William T. 
Harris gave to the reports of the bureau such a high char- 
acter for the comprehensive grasp of world education that 
they have come to be as highly valued in Europe as in this 
country. 

Education a National Concern. — It has been a matter of 
sincere regret to many that the United States has not given to 
education a place in the councils of the nation equal to war or 
commerce. It is also to be regretted that the bureau has not 
had direct control of the schools for all the backward peoples, 
especially those who have become the wards of the nation 
since the Spanish War. Dr. Draper, Commissioner of Edu- 
cation of the state of New York, has forcibly pointed to the 
fact that in the control of education in the territories, in 
the District of Columbia, in the management of schools for 
the Indians, in military and naval academies, and in the 
administration of schools in the newly acquired colonies, the 
Bureau of Education has been practically ignored, and more 
than that, the appropriations for the support of the work 
which it has undertaken are so meagre as to cause a sense of 
shame and humiliation to all true friends of education. ^ 

The work of raising the Bureau of Education to its proper 
dignity and equipping it to control and care for all the educa- 
tional agencies which the government undertakes, awaits the 
commanding effort of some great leader who not only appre- 

^ " Federal Educational Plan Needed," Andrew S. Draper, The Outlook, Octo- 
ber 5, 1907. 
D 



34 EdMcatio7tal Admi7iistration 

ciates the crying evil of the present situation, but has the 
heart and the courage to take up the battle and win the 
victory. 

The efforts of the present commissioner to make the bu- 
reau more practically effective deserve the fullest appreci- 
ation and support. 

Education of the Indian. — The Indian problem has ever 
been one of perplexing difficulty, alike baffling to statesmen 
and painful to all kind-hearted and humane people. To have 
within our borders many tribes of wild and malevolent sav- 
ages could not but require some earnest and conscientious 
action. Missionaries went among them trying to establish 
schools early in the last century. In 1819 the United States 
made its first appropriation of $1000, and until 1894 a large 
part of the educational work was carried on by denomina- 
tional schools which received appropriations from Congress. 
In that year Congress voted to withhold support from all sec- 
tarian institutions, and undertook, through the Indian com- 
missioner and the superintendent of Indian schools, to 
superintend all expenditures made for this purpose. The 
education of the Indian has required special knowledge of 
Indian character, traditions, and habits of life, and it has 
taken many years to adapt means to end for the most effective 
results. Much credit is due to Captain Pratt and General Arm- 
strong for what they were able to do at a period when the 
subject was far less understood than at present. The Carlisle 
and Hampton schools have been powerful agents in illustrat- 
ing what Indian education should be. The last report of the 
Commissioner of Education names twenty states and territo- 
ries in which there are conducted a variety of schools adapted 
to every need of the Indian. Among these are fifty-nine 
schools which are especially engaged in industrial education. 

Education in Alaska. — For the past twenty-two years the 
schools of Alaska have been under the management of the 
same general agent. Dr. Sheldon Jackson. His report for 
the year ending in June, 1905, records that outside of incor- 
porated towns there were fifty-one pubUc schools with sixty-two 
teachers and an enrolment of over three thousand pupils. 



The National Government and Education 35 

An act of Congress was passed in January, 1905, one section 
of which reads as follows : — 

" That the schools specified and provided for in this act shall be devoted 
to the education of white children and children of mixed blood who lead a 
civilized life. The education of the Eskimos and Indians in the district of 
Alaska shall remain under the direction and control of the Secretary of the 
Interior, and schools for and among the Eskimos and Indians of Alaska 
shall be provided for by an annual appropriation, and the Eskimos and Indian 
children of Alaska shall have the same right to be admitted to any Indian 
boarding-school as the Indian children in the states or territories of the 
United States." 

In accordance with this act Congress appropriated ^50,000 
for the education of the natives in Alaska during the year 
ending in June, 1906. The average of government grants has 
been about ^30,000 per year since 1884. 

Mention should also be made of a novel form of educa- 
tional work which has been undertaken in Alaska ; namely, 
the introduction of domestic reindeer as a means of saving 
the inhabitants from starvation, and of furnishing them a 
means not only of sustenance but of a more stable and civil- 
ized life. Congress made the first appropriation of ^6000 
for this purpose in 1893. Dr. Jackson, who first suggested 
the idea of introducing reindeer and of giving instruction to 
the natives in the arts of herding, harnessing, driving, and so 
forth, has been in charge of this interesting experiment. The 
total number of reindeer in 1905 was 10,241. The total 
amount appropriated by Congress for this purpose was 
1^207,500. This instance of congressional interest and ac- 
tivity has not only proven to be most beneficent in its educa- 
tive effects upon the people of Alaska, but is a suggestive 
example of the varied kinds of educational work which are 
now undertaken. 

Education in Porto Rico. — On the i8th of October, 1898, 
the island of Porto Rico fell under the military rule of the 
United States and continued so until May i, 1900. During 
this period and up to the present time, each year has 
witnessed rapid progress in the development of a complete 
system of education well adapted to the Porto Ricans. In 



36 Educational Administration 

1903 and 1904 there were 61,000 pupils enrolled in more than 
1000 different schools. The work has been facilitated by 
importing American teachers and by sending the native 
teachers to the United States for instruction. Schools are 
entirely free ; school buildings have been improved ; an 
effective system of supervision has been in operation. As an 
object lesson in the rapid improvement of an educational sit- 
uation and in the wise adaptation of a system to a people 
differing greatly from ourselves, there is much to learn by 
those who are engaged in school administration under quite 
different circumstances. 

Education in the Philippines. — In 1901 the insular gov- 
ernment in the Philippine Islands expended for education 
^233,411. In each succeeding year more than ^1,000,000 
has been expended. The number of children between the 
ages of 6 and 14 years is estimated at 1,200,000. The pur- 
pose is as rapidly as possible to provide primary education 
for the entire number. There are 700 American teachers 
for the 729 municipalities, and 3125 Filipino teachers who 
have been trained at first by the American teachers individu- 
ally and afterwards in normal institutions. Nearly all the 
instruction is in English, In 35 provinces secondary schools 
have been organized. In 1903 the Philippine commission 
arranged to have 100 students sent to the United States at 
the expense of the insular government. They were dis- 
tributed in various institutions throughout the country. 
The several superintendents who have administered educa- 
tional affairs in the PhiHppines have endeavored to adapt 
school work to a people quite different from ourselves. 
While in this country the effort has been to modify material- 
istic tendencies of life, in the PhiHppines the demand is felt 
for an effort in the opposite direction. The racial charac- 
teristics and the climate have produced conditions which 
require a stimulus toward practical activity. Here, as 
everywhere, civilization begins with intelligent industry and 
self-support. Hence, training in science and the elements of 
industry are Hkely to be important features in the educa- 
tional work. 



The National Government and Education 37 

The Military Academy. — The first steps toward the estab- 
lishment of a mihtary school were taken in i ^^6, but nothing 
was accomplished until 1783, when Alexander Hamilton was 
made chairman of a committee to prepare a plan for the 
peace arrangement of the army. Washington at this time 
recommended that a military school should be located at 
West Point. In 1802 the beginnings of the school were 
made, and the government made yearly appropriations for its 
support. The Academy, with ten cadets present, was formally 
opened on July 4th of the same year. It has been developed 
and maintained progressively by Congress until by acts of 
1900, 1902, and 1903 the corps of cadets consists of one from 
each congressional district, one from each territory, one 
from the District of Columbia, one from Porto Rico, two 
from each state at large, and forty from the United States at 
large, — all to be appointed by the President. The maxi- 
mum number of cadets is 522. The total number of grad- 
uates from 1802 to 1907 is 4641. 

The pay of the cadet is i^soo per year and one ration per 
day. The total is ^609.50, to commence upon admission to 
the Academy. The necessary travelling expenses of candi- 
dates are also credited. All cadets are examined physically 
in June of each year, and those found physically disqualified 
to continue in the course or, in the case of the first class, for 
commission to the army are discharged. 

The United States Naval Academy. — When George Ban- 
croft became Secretary of the Navy, he found four small 
naval schools, and he set about establishing in the place of 
them one strong naval academy. This institution, as well as 
the military academy, has made honorable records in train- 
ing men for the army and navy, and is evidence that the 
United States government is not incapable of carrying on 
educational work. During the Civil War the Academy was 
conducted at Newport, Rhode Island. In the summer of 1865 
it was brought back to Annapolis, where it has since remained. 
In 1873 the term of the academic course was changed from 
four to six years. Various acts of Congress have tended to 
strengthen the Academy in all its departments, and to im- 



38 Educatio7ial Ad'ininistration 

prove its administration and make it more effective in train- 
ing men for naval work. 

The graduates of West Point, particularly, many of whom 
have resigned after graduation, have entered every known 
branch of scientific and engineering enterprise, and have 
undertaken the most difficult problems in the line of engi- 
neering and construction that have arisen in this country. 
The fact that the construction of the Panama Canal is now 
being successfully carried forward by the army is a sufficient 
tribute to the technical ability of its officers. However much 
the importance of being prepared for war may be minimized 
in view of the expectation of international peace in the near 
future, the nation has greatly aided the development of 
national resources by providing superior training for a select 
body of men. 

National Institutions doing Educational Work, — Not only 
has the national government undertaken these specific 
forms of educational work which we have enumerated, but 
under its fostering care there have grown up in the city of 
Washington a large number of bureaus, museums, and li- 
braries which together constitute an important asset in the 
educational machinery of the nation. He who administers 
education in any community whatever finds it easy to become 
absorbed in the purely mechanical and executive functions of 
his office. Everything must be reduced to system, and rules 
and regulations must be enforced, but he has an opportunity 
of doing much more than this ; namely, to make available to 
school officers, teachers, and the people generally those great 
sources of power and inspiration which are within reach. 
The institutions which the government supports at Washing- 
ton are like great fountains pouring forth streams of influ- 
ence and knowledge to every part of the country. It is only 
necessary that they be utilized in such a manner as shall be 
most profitable to the teachers of the land. 

The Congressional Library is destined to be the greatest of 
our American libraries. The lists of references which are 
prepared by the division of bibliography, and which are 
freely distributed to those who desire them, include such 



The National Government and Education 39 

topics as " The Government Ownership of Railroads," 
" Federal Control of Commerce and Corporations," " The 
Negro Question," " Old Age and Civil Service Pensions," 
and many others. 

The Smithsonian Institution, with its various museums and 
bureaus, has been a marvel of educational activity. No 
nobler gift was ever made to a nation than that of James 
Smithson, an Englishman who never visited this country, 
but a scientist of rare accomplishments. The following sig- 
nificant provision in his will testifies to his breadth and far- 
sightedness : — 

" I bequeath the whole of my property to the United States of America 
to found at Washington under the name of the Smithsonian Institution an 
establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." 

The entire legacy amounted to ^650,000, which has been 
increased by careful management to 1^911,000. The first 
secretary. Professor Joseph Henry, defined the object of the 
institution as follows : — 

1. " To increase knowledge and original investigation and study either 
in science or literature. 

2. " To diffuse knowledge not only through the United States but 
everywhere, especially by promoting an interchange of thought among 
those prominent in learning in all nations." 

The National Museum, which is a part of the Smithsonian 
Institution, is a comprehensive collection of all objects neces- 
sary for the instruction of people, and its benefits are extended 
freely to visitors from all parts of the United States. 

In connection with the institutions already mentioned and 
the departments of the government there are at least 
twenty-eight libraries in Washington which together consti- 
tute one of the most complete collections in the world, all of 
which are available to investigators and students. When 
one contemplates the provisions already made at the national 
capital for students in every department and those of the 
Carnegie Institute with its liberal endowment, it is easy to 
see that whether we have a national university or not, Wash- 
ington is destined to become an educational centre, and it 



40 Educational Administration 

will also be agreed that while Congress does not undertake 
to control schools, aid has been generously given to all forms 
of educational effort not otherwise provided for by the states. 

REFERENCES 

Harris, W. T. The General Government and Public Education, 
N. E. A., 1890 : 481-489. — Draper, A. S. The General Government and 
Public Education, N. E. A., igo6: 201-208. — Walcott, C. D. The Re- 
lations of the National Government to Higher Education and Research, the 
Univ. Record (Chicago), June 28, 1901 : 40-49. — Fouillee, A. J. E. Ed- 
ucation from a National Standpoint. — White, E. E. Relations of Na- 
tional and State Governments to Advanced Education, Am. Soc. Sci. Assn. 
Jour., 7 : 299. — Blackmar, F. W. History of Federal and State Aid to 
Higher Education in the United States. — Boone, R. G. Education in 
the United States. — Congressional Grants for Colleges, C. R. 1893: 
1268. — General Laws relating to Agricultural and Mechanical Land-grant 
Colleges, C. R. 1903 : 39. — Germann, G. B. National Legislation concern- 
ing Education. — Mayo, A. D. National Aid to Education, Am. Soc. Sci. 
Assn. Jour. (1882), 17:3. — Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges, C. R. 
1903: 1627. — Shiras, A. National Bureau of Education (a pamphlet), 
— Publications of the Bureau of Education, C. R. 1895:1821. — Educa- 
tion in the Philippines, Hawaii, and Cuba, C. R. 1903 : 2385. — Atkinson, 
F. W. On the American Teacher in the Philippines, Ed. Rev. 25 : 235. — 
Education in the Philippines, C. R. 1902:2219. — Atkinson, F. W. D. 
The Present Educational Movement in the Philippine Islands, C. R. 1901 : 
1317. — Holman,H. English National Education. — Sharpless, L Relation 
of the State to Education in England and America, Annals of the Am. 
Acad, of Pol. Sci. 3 :669. — Lexis, W. (tr. by Tamson, G. T.). A Gen- 
eral View of the History and Organization of Public Education in the 
German Empire. — Goodrich, C. F. Education in the American Navy, N. 
E. A. 1904:121. — Robinson, C. M. The Improvement of Towns and 
Cities. — The Smithsonian Institution, An. Rep. of the Sm. Inst, for 1906, 
p. 97. — Education in the Philippines, C. R. 1905 : XXXVII. — Federal Aid 
to Colleges of Agriculture, C. R. 1903:1179. — Official Register of the 
Officers and Cadets of the United States Military Academy at West Point, 
June, 1907. — Annual Register of the United States Naval Academy at 
Annapolis, Md. 1906-1907. — Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges, C. R. 
1905 : 657. — Education in Alaska, C. R. 1903 :LIX; 1903:2333; 1903: 
2385; 1904: 1091 : 1905 : XXXIV. — Benefactions to Education, C. R. 
1904:2359. — The Carnegie Institution, C. R. 1904:2325. — Barnard, 
Henry, and the Bureau of Education, C. R. 1902 ; 887. 



CHAPTER IV 

The State and Education 

V Education a State Function. — In modern culture nations, 
the state, in its progressive evolution, has gradually assumed 
a wide range of functions which could be best carried on 
through the political organization. Among these are defence, 
the maintenance of internal order, and the regulation of 
foreign commerce. In recent years it has become common 
for the state to assume industrial functions, like the building 
of railroads and canals where it was impracticable for private 
effort to accomplish these successfully. Similarly it has 
gradually extended its participation in the control and sup- 
port of various forms of education. Long after educational 
development had attained considerable proportions, it was 
still intrusted by society largely to the church, to philan- 
thropic effort, and to private venture. Even in primitive 
forms of state organization, however, it was not uncommon 
for the political authority to promote some limited forms of 
education, especially those which were allied with military or 
diplomatic success ; certain forms of professional and higher 
education also early received state encouragement. But the 
rise of the modern nations has seen the rapid transfer of the 
control and support of various forms of education from 
the voluntary organizations hitherto active to public agencies. 
Just as the state long ago took over the function of public 
defence and the maintenance of internal order, so it has also 
found it expedient and socially profitable to take over and to 
develop in full measure a wide range of educational activities. 

I. MOTIVES FOR STATE PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATION 

The two fundamental social motives found to underlie the 
progressive assumption of educational activities by the state 
are : the natural desire of society through government to se- 

41 



42 Educational Administration 

cure the safety of the social group ; and to procure the wel- 
fare and happiness of the individuals composing the state. 

Social Security in the earlier forms of state organization 
{i.e. the more autocratic) requires leaders. Society can be 
compared to any army of which the rank and file may be 
ignorant, but leaders must be trained. The state, exercising 
its obligations of public defence, administration of justice, 
regulation of commerce and industry, and promotion of 
science and culture, finds that the primitive educational in- 
stitutions are not sufficient, unaided, to develop the knowledge 
and skill required in these fields. For this reason govern- 
ments begin by subsidizing the higher forms of education 
and developing new types of schools to supply needs not 
met by previously existing institutions. Under this concep- 
tion of social need the education of the masses of men and 
of women may be ignored or left to the imperfect ministra- 
tions of voluntary agencies. Much of the early education in 
the American colonies as well as that of the European coun- 
tries previous to the democratic movements partook of this 
character. 

Effects of Democracy. — The security of the state means 
something more when the influence of democratic ideas in 
government becomes prominent. If, through his vote, each 
man is capable of becoming a considerable factor in the 
political activity of the state, it becomes axiomatic that the 
voter must be educated to understand at least something of 
government and his relation to it. " We must educate our 
rulers," was the remark of an English nobleman after the 
great extension of suffrage in 1868, and it was shortly after 
that event that England took her first large step towards 
state support and control of popular education. To the nine- 
teenth century, especially, belongs the rise of widespread 
education of all people supported extensively by the state, 
and the connection of this with modern democratic tendencies 
is close and obvious. Among the chief arguments for com- 
pulsory school attendance, free text-books, free tuition, and 
free school supplies, and for financial assistance to the weaker 
portions of commonwealths in meeting the obligations of 



The State and Education 43 

education, that is most common -which insists that unless a 
level of general intelligence can be maintained, the safety of 
the state will be endangered. 

Free Education is also closely associated with the idea 
that in a democracy opportunity must be provided for the 
development of natural capacity wherever found. Even 
more than autocratic governments, democracies need leader- 
ship, and leaders must be found in all ranks of the people. 
For a time philanthropic effort, expressed in scholarships 
and other forms of aid, is supposed by social leaders to be 
sufficient to provide opportunities for higher training to all 
who are proved worthy of them. But gradually education is 
made as little expensive as possible, to the end that social 
security may be furthered through the fullest development of 
ability wherever discovered. Modern states may be found to 
be in all stages of transition in this respect. University and 
secondary education still lay a heavy financial burden on the 
German student ; in England, though fees are still charged, 
moderately for secondary, and heavily for higher, education, 
a bewildering variety of scholarships and bursaries make the 
way easy for the more capable student ; and in America 
secondary education has become free of cost, while in some 
of the states even college and professional education are 
practically so. 

International Industrial Competition. — Within recent years 
there has developed a new motive for state activity in educa- 
tion based on the obligation of governments to promote public 
security. International competition no longer takes only the 
form of war; industrial rivalries also are possible, since the 
modern state which depends largely on manufacturing must 
win its way in the markets of the world. Other things being 
equal, that state which, in manufacturing and commerce, can 
enlist the largest number of trained producers and able 
leaders will win and force its competitor into poverty. It 
has become a matter of widespread belief in recent years 
that Germany and France, as well as some of the smaller 
states of Europe, owe their advance largely to their well- 
developed systems of industrial education ; and consequently 



44 Educational Administration 

England and America, in both of which this has hardly yet 
been recognized as a proper field for state action, have be- 
come greatly interested. Active efforts to induce govern- 
mental agencies to aid and develop industrial education of 
various types are well under way, and in Great Britain, es- 
pecially, it is felt that the national security may be greatly 
endangered by permitting other nations, through their wide 
spread support of vocational education, to overwhelm indus- 
trial England in the international struggle for markets. 

Prohibition of Anti-social Education. — The security of 
society not only demands positive education, but it also 
imposes the obligation of repressing or prohibiting forms 
of education which might be deemed socially destruc- 
tive. In modern democratic societies it has become cus- 
tomary to allow considerable freedom of teaching, in the 
same way that freedom of speech and of the press is 
allowed ; but historically, and even at the present time 
in many countries, the state recognizes as one of its ob- 
ligations such regulation of education as will prevent the 
development of influences deemed detrimental to society and 
its institutions. 

Promotion of Social Welfare. — The second principal justi- 
fication for state participation in the control and support of 
education is found in the gradually developing function of 
society, through the agency of government, of fostering the well- 
being of individuals in directions other than defence and the 
administration of justice. For centuries civihzed states have 
nourished the arts and Hterature ; they have carried on indus- 
trial enterprises of greater or less moment ; they have pro- 
moted scientific investigation and exploration ; they have 
cared for the sick and the dependent ; and similarly they 
have contributed some efforts towards organized education. 
Museums, art galleries, expositions, theatres, and libraries are 
educational institutions which provide for the well-being of 
individuals in ways that would not be possible for private 
initiative. In modern times this participation of the state 
tends enormously to increase, probably owing to the com- 
plexity of economic and social conditions which make action 



The State and Education 45 

on a large social scale almost inevitable. It is becoming more 
widely an accepted principle that in those fields of social 
action in which private or philanthropic effort are insuffi- 
cient, and which state action can reach, public support and 
control are justifiable. Under both monarchical and demo- 
cratic governments may we look for a widening of state 
activity in the direction of providing more abundantly the 
resources which make for widespread individual well-being.^ 
Projected Efficiency. — Actually, though unconsciously, as 
Kidd has shown,^ all progressive societies tend to take into ac- 
count the well-being of future generations. From this point, 
too, of " projected efficiency " education administered by the 
state is simply contributory to general functions of the social 
order. The growing philanthropic spirit of modern society 
finds one of its expressions in a widespread altruism which be- 
comes a basis of social action, and which most naturally finds 
its development along educational lines. Here opens a possi- 
ble way to paternalism. This, like any other help from without, 
may prove destructive of individual initiative, but the central 
principle of state action in promoting individual welfare is to 
find those channels of activity wherein public action will, on 
the whole, promote rather than diminish individual responsi- 
bility and capacity. 

^ 2. FORMS OF STATE PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATION 

State Control. — While the motives for state action in edu- 
cation are practically the same in all modern nations, the 
forms of government action do not follow similar lines. The 
participation of governmental agencies in most forms of social 
activity may be considered from three standpoints. Govern- 

1 " The end of the state is thus seen to be the present welfare and future pro- 
tection of all citizens considered as an integral portion of humanity. . . . (This) 
is something tangible and capable of approximate realization. It is not limited 
to one factor in human life, such as the production of wealth, or the distribution 
of justice, or the enforcement of contracts, or the protection of property. It 
includes everything that makes the citizens of the state men and their life worth 
living." — McKechnie, The State and the Individual, p. 86. 

^ Principles of Western Civilization. 



46 Educational Administratioit 

ment may regulate without supporting, or it may support 
without regulating, or it may in greater or less degree com- 
bine these functions. Control of the state over education is 
attained by examinations of those who shall be permitted to 
teach, by designation of the content of education, and by tests 
imposed upon those educated before they may pass into their 
respective callings. In Germany and England the regulation 
along these and other lines is detailed and exacting, while in 
the typical American state much is left to local and individual 
option. 

Partial state support follows after regulation and control of 
education in monarchies, and frequently precedes it in more 
democratic nations. The state may simply impose upon 
the community the obhgation to support education by local 
taxation, as was the case in early Massachusetts ; or it may 
itself contribute out of national or other public funds a large 
share of such cost, like the English parliamentary grants to 
education. For a long time after the inauguration of public 
schools the parent was still placed under obligation to pay 
fees, but in all civilized countries within the last two decades 
charges for elementary education have disappeared. The 
contribution of the state, either through its local or its central 
governmental agencies, tends to increase as education becomes 
more free to its patrons and more expensive to administer, 
until, as in the United States, the expenditure for this pur- 
pose comes to be one-fifth of the total outlay of national, 
state, and local governments. 

Limits of State Support. — The reasons for the state 
support of education are to be found in the relative incapac- 
ity and unwillingness of individuals to meet the burden. 
Under education publicly controlled and privately supported, 
it is found that some are able to pay the costs, while others 
are not. But social security, as well as the future well-being 
of the children under consideration, demands that all should 
have some measure of educational opportunity. To make 
discriminations by giving aid to parents too poor to pay for 
education has proven socially obnoxious ; consequently each 
civilized nation has reached the point where at least a 



The State and Education 47 

measure of education is now open without cost to all. Just 
how far it will prove socially expedient to make higher and 
special forms of education free to the individual and entirely 
supported by public revenue, is yet an unsettled question. 
Students of social evolution note a constantly increasing dis- 
position for the state to extend its functions as regards de- 
fence, the preservation of order, the prevention of ill health, 
the fostering of industry, and other lines of activity ; and the 
tendency seems equally to be in the direction of bringing 
more extensive developments of education under public 
support and direction, to the end that social efficiency may 
be promoted thereby. It must be noted, on the other hand, 
that many profess to find in the extension of state support of 
education a menace to individual initiative.^ 

Direction. — With state support of education, regulation 
and control take on a new aspect, since social economy 
demands that public money be wisely expended. Inspection 
becomes a large and important function of educational ad- 
ministration, and is tending in modern times to become a 
profession. The state now combines management and 
support, and its control of education is complete. In this 
respect we find England still in a condition of transition, for 
it has not yet attained complete management, though striving 
toward it. 

Imposition of Education. — Finally, when the state has 
organized education and when it supports it sufficiently, it 
takes the last step in providing for its own security and the 

^ " The state, too, must of course have regard to the other national (or edu- 
cating) institutions — the Individual, the Family, the Economic Order — which 
it enfolds and protects, and apart from vv'hose vigorous life it cannot itself live; 
it must exercise a benignant care over the rights of every person, every family, 
every occupation, and trade, to that precious condition of Rational Freedom, the 
chance and time to earn a self-support. And while in this care it may judge the 
course prudent and just, as well as convenient for its executive needs, to support 
all grades of schools to such an extent as will secure their highest efficiency, 
there is another side of its problem — the preeminently moral side — which its 
own nature and the aim of its educational action alike forbid it to ignore ; it 
must beware of lessening the sense of personal, of family, or of corporate re- 
sponsibility for self-support and self-production of character." — Prof. G. H. 
HOWISON, Ed. Rev. 5 : 432. 



48 Educational Administration 

welfare of its members by imposing instruction upon all 
people alike, to the end that not only the willing majority 
but the unwilling minority also shall be compelled to receive 
its advantages. Few modern culture states are wanting in 
compulsory education laws, though their enforcement is very 
unequal. In the German states not only is attendance com- 
pulsory during the ordinary school period to the age of four- 
teen, but there is a further compulsory period reaching in 
some cases to the age of seventeen or eighteen during which 
attendance at evening school is obligatory. In a few 
American states, in addition to the usual requirement of 
school attendance until the age of fourteen, provision is made 
for two years' further compulsory schooling in the case of 
those who have not completed a definite part of the ele- 
mentary course of study. The right of the state to compel 
parents to educate their children, and even to deprive them 
of the custody of such children in case they neglect their 
obligations in this respect has been disputed in all countries, 
but has universally been conceded in law.^ This state inter- 
ference takes several forms ; it may simply compel the child 
to attend school to a certain age ; or it may compel him to 
attend until he has reached a certain stage of educational 
efficiency ; or it may prohibit his entrance into industry until 
a fixed age ; or, finally, it may obhge him, as in several 
German states, as a condition of entering into or remaining 
in certain kinds of apprenticeship, to attend prescribed forms 
of continuation school. 

3. LIMITS OF STATE PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATION 

Limits in Taxing Powers. — While the right and obligation 
of the modern state to control education, to carry it on at 

1 " The end of the state, then, is the end of society and the individual — the 
best life as determined by the fundamental logic of the will. The means at its 
disposal, qua state, always partake of the nature of force, though this does not 
exclude their having other aspects as well. Taxation may have the most reason- 
able and even the most popular purpose, yet the generality and justice of its 
incidence, and the certainty of its productiveness, can only be secured by com- 
pulsion." — BOSANQUET, Philosophical Theory of the State, p. 186. 



The State and Education 49 

public expense, and to enforce the educational rights and 
obligations of all children is generally conceded in theory and 
practice, there remains still the utmost disagreement as to the 
proper limits to be set to such activity. It has been pointed 
out, for example, that in some states secondary education has 
been made free, in others it is still to some extent a charge 
upon the parent. In some states the lower forms of voca- 
tional training are made free, but the higher forms, in the 
shape of technical education, are still a heavy tax upon the in- 
dividual. In some American states, the public is taxed for the 
support of college and certain forms of professional training 
to the extent of making these practically free to the stu- 
dent, while in others the cost of higher education is prohibi- 
tive to the poorer student unless he can procure aid in the 
form of a scholarship. Under some conditions those who 
are training as teachers not only receive an education at pub- 
lic expense, but even a sort of salary or stipend while being 
so educated. Elsewhere such education can only be obtained 
at the expense of the individual himself. The demand for 
new and varied forms of education in applied art and industry 
continually raises the question as to how far the state should 
be taxed, and there are never wanting those who insist that 
it already exceeds its legitimate functions in this field. 

Limits in Control. — In the matter of control of education 
there is considerable uncertainty. Shall the state exercise over- 
sight and control over private forms of education? In Eng- 
land and America practically no public control is exerted over 
schools which do not derive revenues from the state. Their 
quality may be good or bad, they may be well or ill adminis- 
tered; the decision is left to their patrons. An exception 
must be made in the case of institutions dealing with neg- 
lected and dependent childhood, which, in both countries, have 
long been under some sort of governmental inspection. In 
continental countries, on the other hand, there is considerable 
oversight of private institutions. What are the proper limits 
of state action in this matter? There is also considerable 
dispute as to how far the state should in justice go in the 
matter of compelling children against their own and their 



50 Educational Administration 

parents' will to attend school. The principle is conceded, 
but it is questioned whether the state should have the right, 
for example, to insist on attendance to sixteen, or to require 
the attendance of apprentices at evening schools to the age 
of seventeen or eighteen. 

Social Expediency the Basic Principle. — It is evident that, 
after all, the activity of the state in these matters can hardly 
be described as a right, but that the entire question is one of 
social expediency. The highest social expediency is at all 
times the right of the state, and if it can be shown of any 
proposed governmental action that it will in the long run pro- 
duce the maximum of social good, the obligation of the state 
to take such a step is estabHshed. Now, it is impossible to 
determine in the abstract as to whether any given line of state 
action is expedient from a social point of view; the question 
must be settled with reference to the particular cases and con- 
ditions under consideration. Free public education, for ex- 
ample, from the social point of view, has several results. In 
the first place, it insures a larger amount of education to a 
larger number of people, which is apparently a social good ; 
in some cases, because it is free, it reduces the disposition of 
parents toward self-help, which is an evil; it permits the carry- 
ing on of education on a large scale, which is partly good and 
partly evil ; it taxes people and property that are not directly 
or visibly benefited by the education given, which is some- 
times regarded as an evil. The pupil himself, receiving his 
education and perhaps even his books with no effort to him- 
self, may be, in some cases, sensibly pauperized thereby, which, 
of course, is a social evil. Now in the last analysis it can be 
seen that whether the state is justified or not in undertaking 
control, support, or enforcement of certain forms of education 
depends upon the final social resultant of factors like the above. 
Each one is changeable with evolving social life, hence the 
impossibihty of fixed standards. For example, it is undoubt- 
edly a fact that under some social conditions the giving of free 
education may lead to the same kind of demoralization of 
parental effort as would the giving of free bread or clothes. 
On the other hand, every one engaged in the administration 



The State and Education 51 

of what is called " scientific charity " knows that there are 
conditions under which the giving of free bread or clothes not 
only does not pauperize, but actually lifts from and prevents 
pauperization. So, similarly, it is an undoubted fact that 
under many conditions the giving of free education does not 
pauperize, but in the long run conspicuously opposes any nas- 
cent tendencies toward pauperization by increasing self-respect 
and capacity for self-support. 

Limits in Social Wealth. — On the other hand, whether we 
shall regard the taxing of the entire community for the sup- 
port of education as socially desirable depends to a consider- 
able extent on the condition of that community with respect 
to available financial surplus. A tax, for example, to support 
secondary education might be entirely expedient from the 
social standpoint in a community with considerable surplus, 
and quite unjustifiable in a poorer one, other conditions 
remaining the same. The urgency of need may in one com- 
munity render it highly advisable to maintain free normal 
school instruction, whilst under other conditions that form 
of professional education could be partly supported by the 
students who might seek it. The effect upon the pupil him- 
self, too, varies with the circumstances ; whether free univer- 
sity education will or will not contribute the largest number 
of men and women with the maximum of personal initiative 
when they shall have obtained such education may depend 
very much on the conditions under which it is given, and the 
social rank of those affected. In one case it might diminish 
initiative, causing the graduate to linger about, waiting for 
the state to do something for him ; on the other hand, it 
might simply have the effect of causing the youth to realize 
that when the state had so fully and satisfactorily discharged 
its functions towards him, it would now become his turn to 
make use of the knowledge so gained to contribute his share 
toward the upbuilding of the state. 

Many factors, it will be seen, enter into the determination of 
this matter of social expediency. In our present very imper- 
fect knowledge of the principles of social economy, it is difficult 
to forecast the probable result of any course of action ; con- 



52 Educational Administration 

sequently the subject becomes one for partisanship. There 
can be no doubt, however, that society will eventually have 
to settle many questions of this character by the adoption of 
a deliberate policy of experimentation. All countries, for 
example, are confronted by the problem of industrial educa- 
tion under state support. Granting the ultimate feasibility 
of such education, it still remains a question as to how far 
the state may provide it without sapping the sources of self- 
support and individual initiative. Would the boy trained at 
state expense become a sufficiently better workman, morally 
as well as vocationally, to more than pay society for the 
outlay thus made } Certainly in time it will be within the 
disposition and power of the state to put such matters to 
experimental test. Once these schools are established, their 
social effect can be measured, and judgments formed accord- 
ingly. In the meantime it must be obvious that the nearest 
approach we can make to principles of social expediency 
will be only in the nature of roughest approximations. The 
method employed at present in civilized states in determining 
the limits of educational control and support conformable to 
highest social expediency is one of trial and error. Persist- 
ently a verbal battle is waged between the forces of opposing 
ideas. Vested interests, inherited theories of the sphere of 
governmental influence, inertia, and the ambitious tendencies 
of idealism are all enlisted. The result is that changes have 
taken place, sometimes rapidly, more often slowly, until the 
modern states have reached their present condition, which is, 
as has been noted, one of large participation. The nineteenth 
century practically gave the world free, publicly controlled 
and supported education. Undoubtedly the twentieth cen- 
tury will see more scientific attempts to define its limitations, 
as these are related to the social development of the time, 
and as serving to bring about the higher social expediency. 



The State and Education 53 



REFERENCES 

Addams, Jane. Democracy and Social Ethics, Chap. VI. New York, 
1902. — Bosanquet,B. ThePhilosophical Theory of the State. London, 1899. 

— Craik, Henry. The State in its Relation to Education. London, 1884. 

— Dunning, W. A. A History of Political Theories. New York, 1902. 

— Eliot, C.W. Function of Education in a Democratic Society. In English 
Education Department. Special Reports, 1902 : Vol. II, pp. 3-61. — 
Fouillde, Alfred. Education from a National Standpoint. New York, 1892. 

— Green, T. H. Principles of Political Obligation. London, 1895. — 
McKechnie, Wm. S. The State and the Individual, Chap. III. Glasgow, 
1896. — Pollock, F. Introduction to the Study of the Science of Politics. 
London, 1890. — Ritchie, D. G. Principles of State Interference. — Spencer, 
Herbert. Social Statics (Sec. National Education). New York, 1896. 

— Willoughby, W. W. The Nature of the State. New York, 1896.— 
Wilson, Woodrow. The State. Boston, 1889. 



CHAPTER V 

American States and Educational Administration 

Nation and State. — In discussing education as developed 
in modern states, it has been frequently necessary to make 
reference to the largest national divisions as the controlling 
agencies, since in countries like Great Britain and France 
the nation is the unit of legislative control and support. On 
the other hand, in Germany and the United States the nation 
exercises little or no direct control, and does not contribute 
much in the way of direct support. The German federated 
states, such as Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, and 
the rest, are independent in the matter of the control and 
support of education, except in a few particulars. 

So in the United States the union is formed of federated 
states which have surrendered but a portion of their sov- 
ereignty to the national government. Each state delegated 
certain powers, such as external defence and the regulation 
of commerce, but it retained numerous others, among which 
are all of those pertaining to education. Within each state 
government resides entirely the authority and responsibility 
for dealing with education in all its forms. Whether the 
public shall be taxed for free schools, whether the state or 
its smaller divisions shall manage such schools, whether the 
state shall permit or inspect private educational enterprise, 
whether the state shall impose conditions of compulsory 
education, — all these matters rest in the last analysis back 
on the government of the individual state itself.^ 

The national government may, indeed, establish and sup- 
port schools within any state, or it may offer contributions 

^ The principal restriction on state freedom in these matters is found in 
possible interpretations of that clause in the Constitution which restrains states 
from passing laws impairing the obligations of contracts. 

54 



American State Administration 55 

in aid of such education ; but its legal position seems to be 
that of an outside or private party contracting with the 
state, for it may not levy upon state property for the sup- 
port of such schools, nor may it attempt to guide the state- 
approved machinery in their administration.^ 

The fundamental organization of the government of each 
state is found in its constitution. Barring certain stipulations 
regarding the use of lands conferred on the states by the 
national government, the latter imposes no restrictions on 
state freedom in educational matters. The state constitution 
provides, sometimes in most general terms and sometimes 
quite specifically, for the means of legislation, execution of 
laws, and administration of justice, under which divisions fall 
the various elements in the machinery of education. To a 
great extent actual educational administration is left to the 
various divisions of the state, though an increasing number 
of functions are devolving upon the legislature, the State 
Board, and the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

I. STATE CONSTITUTIONS 

Beginnings of State Education. — Historically, the main 
ideas regarding public education had become organized con- 
siderably prior to the formation of the Union. Early in the 
seventeenth century educational legislation was already for- 

^ " The Constitution of the United States contains no reference to the duty of 
providing the means of education. That great document is silent upon the sub- 
ject of first public concern, although the fathers of the Constitution were neither 
indifferent nor uninformed about it. The Constitution of every state, since the 
recent adoption by Delaware, contains abundant reference to the subject. The 
United States gives land, and has done so with generous and discriminating hand; 
the United States Bureau of Education gathers data and makes known its deduc- 
tions, and has rendered this service with marked thoroughness and accuracy; 
and the United States commissioner gives direction and inspiration to the educa- 
tional thought of the country — the present commissioner with a wisdom and 
efficiency which ministers to the pride of every citizen and places every lover of 
his country under obligations to him ; but the United States is powerless to 
control and does not assume to manage the educational institutions of the 
people ; the states have full power to do so." — A. S. Draper, " Functions of the 
State touching Education," Ed. Rev. 15 : 107. 



56 Educational Administration 

raulated in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Before the end 
of that century Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Maryland 
had established the beginnings of state systems of education. 
Roughly speaking, school legislation sprang from school con- 
ditions already existing and needs already partly met, rather 
than the reverse. As the newer territories settled up, schools 
under philanthropic or private effort were very early founded, 
or each community established them cooperatively for a time 
until the legislature could provide uniform laws governing 
the same. The history of the beginnings of American edu- 
cation in all the states shows that local cooperative effort 
paved the way, laying the foundation which made state legis- 
lation necessary. Though Pennsylvania had a body of edu- 
cational laws prior to the formation of her first provisional 
constitution, in 1776, we find that instrument providing : "A 
school or schools shall be established in each county by the 
legislature for the correct instruction of youth, with such 
salaries paid to the master by the public as may enable them 
to instruct youth at low prices, and all useful learning shall be 
duly encouraged an4 promoted in one or more universities." 

The earlier state constitutions only infrequently contain 
mention of education, but this was not because of any lack 
of recognition of the position of the state government in 
respect to schools and educational facilities. Rather was it 
tacitly assumed that state legislatures in carrying out their 
general powers of protecting the commonwealths and pro- 
moting the welfare of individuals would find that a provision 
of education offered a serviceable means to these ends. An 
exception is Pennsylvania, whose early provisional constitu- 
tion was noted above. The constitution of 1790 con- 
tained the following : " The legislature shall, as soon as con- 
veniently may be, provide for the establishment of schools 
throughout the state in such a manner that the poor may be 
taught gratis." A second section reads: "The arts and 
sciences shall be promoted in one or more seminaries of 
learning." The oft-quoted clauses in the act of the federal 
government incorporating the Northwest Territory indicate 
what seems to have been a prevalent attitude when the early 



American State Administration 57 

constitutions were formed, — that is, education was necessary 
and should be encouraged through public support and direc- 
tion, but the legislatures were competent to deal with details. 
" Religion, morahty, and knowledge being necessary to good 
government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the 
means of education shall forever be encouraged." 

Recent Constitutions. — • But if the earlier state constitutions 
gave but scant recognition to education, the same can hardly 
be said to be true of those of the present time. In the later 
constitutions there has been manifest a desire to have therein 
a more logically complete statement of the fundamental 
powers of state government than was found in the earlier 
ones, and this tendency seems to be growing in the Southern 
and Western states. Provisions which guarantee free public 
schools, the permanent existence of the school funds, espe- 
cially those granted by the national government, a state 
system of supervision or administration, and which prohibit 
sectarianism in the schools or the use of public money for sec- 
tarian purposes, are found in almost all the state constitu- 
tions. These can be best illustrated by reference to specific 
examples. 

The constitution of Connecticut contains only two brief 
passages referring to education : one confirms the charter of 
Yale College, the other guarantees the perpetual character of 
the school fund, " the interest on which shall be inviolably 
appropriated to the support and encouragement of the public 
or common schools throughout the state." A similarly brief 
provision in the constitution of New Jersey guarantees the 
integrity of the school fund, but as part of that provision, the 
following clause gives constitutional recognition to the neces- 
sity for a complete system of education : *' The legislature 
shall provide for the maintenance and support of a thorough 
and efficient system of free public schools for the instruction of 
all the children in this state between the ages of five and 
eighteen years." A brief article in the constitution adopted 
in 1873 by the state of Pennsylvania contains provisions mak- 
ing mandatory the establishment of a system of schools, the 
appropriation of at least a million dollars per year, and also 



58 Educational Administration 

the following with reference to sectarian support : " No 
money raised for the support of the public schools of the 
commonwealth shall be appropriated to or used for the sup- 
port of any sectarian school." In addition to a long passage 
relative to state funds, the constitution of Indiana imposes 
upon the state the obligation of providing " for a general and 
uniform system of common schools, wherein tuition shall be 
without charge, and equally open to all." This instrument 
also provides for a state superintendent of public instruction, 
to be elected by the voters, " and whose duties and compensa- 
tion shall be prescribed by law." The constitution of the 
state of Ohio is another example of one containing very brief 
and general provisions, since the organization of the entire 
system of public schools seems to rest on this clause : " Re- 
ligion, morality, and knowledge, however, being essential to 
good government, it shall be the duty of the General Assem- 
bly to pass suitable laws to protect every religious denomina- 
tion in the peaceable enjoyment of its own mode of public 
worship, and to encourage schools and the means of instruc- 
tion." 

Detailed Provisions in Constitutions. — Citations from the 
constitutions of some other states would show that, while 
recognizing their sovereign rights and obligations in the mat- 
ter of establishing and maintaining systems of education, they 
prefer to leave the details of such organizations to the legis- 
latures. But in numerous others there is an obvious tendency 
to incorporate detailed provisions which restrict and direct the 
legislative bodies, or which establish certain definite principles 
that are deemed to be of importance. A few examples, while 
not in any full sense describing this tendency, will exhibit its 
main features. 

The educational section of the constitution of Pennsylvania, 
as noted before, is very brief, but contains this special pro- 
vision, " Women twenty-one years and upward shall be eli- 
gible to any office of control or management under the school 
laws of this state." Illinois prohibits any county or local unit 
from incurring indebtedness exceeding five per cent of total as- 
sessed valuation. North Dakota prescribes the qualifications 



American State Administration 59 

and salary of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and in- 
dicates in detail certain types of state institutions and the 
place at which they are to be located : " A school of forestry, 
or such other institution as the legislature may determine, to 
be located at," etc. The California constitution imposes on 
each district the requirement of maintaining six months' school 
each year, and, in prescribing the details of a state text-book 
system, determines the composition of the State Board of Edu- 
cation. Florida provides in her constitution the details of 
the organization of the State Board of Education, and fixes a 
special rate of taxation for the state of one mill and for the 
counties of not less than three nor more than seven mills. In 
Louisiana the constitution fixes a state rate of one and one- 
half mills for a state school fund; in addition to which 
it contains provisions exempting all types of educational in- 
stitutions from taxation, requiring the separate establishment 
of schools for the two races, permitting the regular teaching 
of French where that does not interfere with the teaching of 
English, and providing for inheritance taxes. It is obvious, 
of course, that many of these constitutional provisions have 
reference to local conditions, but they illustrate a tendency in 
American commonwealths to fix certain matters beyond the 
control of legislatures. An examination of the constitutions 
of a few other states chosen at random is of interest in this 
connection. 

Utah provides constitutionally that "in cities of the first 
and second class the public school system shall be controlled 
by the board of education of such cities, separate and apart 
from the counties in which such cities are located." And 
" neither the legislature nor the State Board of Education 
shall have power to prescribe text-books to be used in the 
common schools," and also, "the metric system shall be 
taught in the common schools of the state." The constitu- 
tion of Michigan requires that " a school shall be maintained 
in each school district at least three months in each year. 
Any school district neglecting to maintain such school shall 
be deprived, for the ensuing school year, of its proportion of 
the income of the primary school fund," etc. It also pre- 



6o Educational Administration 

scribes number, term of office, etc., of the State Board of Re- 
gents. Special provisions are : " Institutions for the benefit 
of those inhabitants who are deaf, dumb, blind, or insane 
shall always be fostered and supported;" "The legislature 
shall encourage the promotion of intellectual, scientific, and 
agricultural improvement;" "The legislature shall provide 
for the establishment of at least one library in each township 
and city." In the constitution of West Virginia it is stipu- 
lated that " county authorities shall never assess taxes, in 
any one year, the aggregate of which shall exceed ninety-five 
cents per hundred dollars' valuation, except for the support of 
free schools," unless such taxes are voted by a three-fifths 
majority ; and that no person connected with the schools shall 
be interested in the sale of books. 

The constitution of Virginia specifies in considerable detail 
the functions of the State Board of Education. It also per- 
mits the General Assembly to provide for the compulsory 
education of children between the ages of eight and twelve 
years, " except such as are weak in body or mind," etc. Fur- 
thermore, " provision shall be made to supply children attend- 
ing the public schools with the necessary text-books in cases 
where parents or guardians are unable to furnish them." 
Also, " white and colored children shall not be taught in the 
same school." In the state of Montana it is provided that 
" women shall be eligible to hold the office of County Super- 
intendent of Schools or any other school district office, and 
shall have the right to vote at any school district election." 

The development of these special constitutional provisions 
indicates the growth of a tendency to make the Constitutional 
Convention, with its referendum to popular suffrage, a kind 
of fundamental legislative body, which tends to take more 
and more direct cognizance of the authority of the state in 
educational and other matters of public concern. That 
changes in and additions to the constitution represent the 
results of movements that have been agitating the population 
for years is well known. The effect of mistaken provisions 
will be felt in practice, and a movement usually will be in- 
augurated for amendment to the constitution. In California, 



American State Administration' 6i 

for example, the constitution adopted in 1879 contained a pro- 
vision expressly denying to high schools any use of state 
moneys, and for a time this seriously handicapped the devel- 
opment of secondary education in that state. But year by 
year the unwisdom of that provision became more manifest, 
until, some twenty years after the making of the constitution, 
the objectionable paragraph was removed, and a state system 
of secondary education was made possible. 



2. THE LEGISLATURE 

Subject to restrictions and specifications in the state con- 
stitution, the power of the legislature in educational matters 
is hardly limited, except by the interests and will of the 
people.! The range of subjects relating to public schools 
and other agencies of instruction with reference to which laws 
are constantly being passed is wide and growing. Among 
these subjects are : the organization of suitable local territories 
for school administration — counties, divisions, townships, 
districts, etc. ; providing means of raising money for school 
purposes ; fixing the qualifications of teachers and creating 
bodies to provide the necessary tests ; passing laws regulating 
the conditions of the employment, tenure, compensation, pen- 
sions, and training of teachers ; providing institutes and other 
agencies for the continued training of teachers ; provision for 
medical inspection and the better physical care of school 
children ; the selection and even publication of text-books ; 
organization of higher institutions of learning. 

Permissive Legislation. — Owing to the fact that education 
has been to a very great extent indigenous in America in each 
state and locality (" Spontaneity is the keynote of American 
education," President Butler has said), a great deal of legisla- 

^ The Constitution of the United States, however, contains provisions which, 
as interpreted by the courts, do actually limit the state. The celebrated Dart- 
mouth College case indicated that the state could not interfere with old founda- 
tions, as can Parliament in England, which has more than once revised the 
conditions of old bequests in the interests of public policy. There is also con- 
siderable doubt as to how far the states may go in regulating private education. 



62 Educational Administration 

tion has been at the outset permissive in character. A com- 
munity is authorized to do that which it has wanted or is 
willing to do, but it is left to other communities to do as they 
see fit. They are permitted to vote money for new buildings, 
to establish evening schools, manual training schools, play- 
grounds, to have medical inspection, to add to the course of 
study, to have supervision of schools, etc. This represents a 
distinct stage in government of a popular character, for it 
means that a reform not yet well enough understood to be 
generally accepted may be experimentally adopted by one or 
more communities until its extension seems feasible. In 1840, 
for example, it is reported that the city of Springfield, Massa- 
chusetts, tried the experiment (without any law governing the 
case) of having a superintendent of schools; in 1854 the first 
general law authorizing the employment of superintendents 
by town and city school committees was passed by the Massa- 
chusetts legislature. Gradually the cities took advantage of 
the law, but the smaller districts were too poor. So in 1870 
a new law permitted two or more towns to unite for the pur- 
pose of employing a superintendent. Very few towns took 
advantage of this permission until a new law was secured in 
1893 which gave state aid to towns which had skilled super- 
vision. Finally the State Board recommended that it be made 
compulsory on all communities to have expert supervision of 
schools, and recent legislation gave effect to this recommen- 
dation. 

Mandatory Legislation. — The last stage, then, is reached 
when action becomes mandatory. After long experience with 
permissive legislation the time arrives when the principle is 
so generally accepted that a majority of the persons or com- 
munities may be counted on to support it, after which the 
necessity of a general diffusion of the good results of educa- 
tion renders it desirable to make the enforcement of the law 
universal. The law regarding education promulgated in 
Massachusetts as early as 1647 is of this character, for it re- 
quires each town of fifty householders to maintain a school 
for the teaching of reading and writing. Laws making it 
mandatory upon the state or the local community to raise a 



American State Administration 63 

certain minimum amount for education ; fixing the salaries of 
school officials or minimum salaries for teachers ; making it 
mandatory upon local boards to procure approval of building 
plans ; fixing the essentials of the course of study, and pre- 
scribing even the details of the teaching as seen in certain 
legislative requirements regarding instruction in hygiene ; 
compelling teachers to attend institutes ; prohibiting corporal 
punishment ; and the recent law of Massachusetts obliging 
all cities to have systematic medical inspection, — all of these 
are of this final and compulsory character. They represent 
the gradual crystallization of public opinion to the point where 
the proposed action is deemed to be conducive to the general 
well-being of the state. 

Preliminaries of Legislation. — A third general fact to be 
noted with regard to educational legislation has reference to 
the agencies which pave the way for it. A large, if not the 
largest, function of most superintendents of public instruction 
is to supply the legislature with accurate information and 
carefully prepared recommendations as to desirable legislation. 
Many of the boards of education, conspicuously that of 
Massachusetts, also perform this function. The annual or 
biennial report of the State Board or superintendent becomes 
itself a message to the legislature. In addition to these 
official agencies, recent years have witnessed a considerable 
development of influence emanating from the teaching force 
through its organized bodies. Various state associations of 
educators now take up proposed changes in the laws or pro- 
posed new laws long before they are introduced in the legis- 
lature, discuss them, and make recommendations accordingly. 
Consequently legislation consists to a certain extent in simply 
recording conclusions which have already been reached among 
those who are best informed as to educational needs. 

3. THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 

Variable Character of State Boards. — Both in composition 
and in function the State Board of Education admits of little 
general description. Frequently it is an ex-officio body com- 



64 Educational Administration 

posed of state officers or of designated members of educa- 
tional institutions. Not infrequently it has a portion of its 
membership appointed by the Governor from lay citizens. Its 
functions variously include custody of state funds, general over- 
sight of education, the government of certain state institutions, 
the election of a state superintendent, selection and even pub- 
lication of text-books, examination and certification of teach- 
ers, and formulation of rules for the immediate management 
of schools. There can be no doubt that with the progressive 
centralization of educational administration and the multi- 
plication of educational activities the State Board is constantly 
coming to assume new responsibilities. Recent legislation 
tends to create new functions to be discharged by this body, 
and there is manifest a desire to increase its efficiency. A 
few illustrations will exhibit present tendencies. In the state 
constitutions we sometimes find provisions made for a state 
board, though more frequently the subject receives no men- 
tion. In West Virginia the constitution establishes the 
" Board of the School Fund " to invest and manage the 
permanent school fund of the state. This is a purely ex- 
officio body composed of the Governor, Superintendent of 
Schools, Auditor, and Treasurer. The law in addition pro- 
vides for another state board for the purpose of issuing 
teachers' certificates, — four persons appointed from various 
congressional districts by the Superintendent of Schools. 
The constitution of Nebraska also establishes a special state 
board to care for state funds and lands. In Michigan we 
find a unique provision for a state board of three members 
elected by popular vote for six years, who " shall have general 
supervision of the state normal school, and whose duties 
shall be prescribed by law." The new constitution of South 
Carolina provides for a board of seven to be appointed by 
the Governor, " who shall have the regulation of the exami- 
nation of teachers applying for certificates of qualification and 
such other duties as may be determined by law." The con- 
stitution of Virginia provides : " The general supervision of 
the school system shall be vested in a state board of edu- 
cation composed of the Governor, Attorney-general, Super- 



American State Administratioji 65 

intendent of Public Instruction, and three experienced 
educators to be elected quadrennially by the Senate, from 
a list of specified eligibles " (nominated from the staffs of 
various educational institutions). The constitutional powers 
of this body include such important matters as the partition 
of the state into appropriate school divisions, appointment of 
division superintendents, management of school fund, formu- 
lation of rules for the government of schools, " which, when 
published, shall have the force and effect of law, subject to 
the authority of the General Assembly to revise, repeal, or 
amend the same," and the selection of text-books. 

In other states the organization of this branch of the edu- 
cational executive is shown in the statutes. The advisory 
capacity of a few state boards is illustrated in the case of 
Georgia, the main function of whose ex-officio boards seems 
to be to act as an advisory body to the State School Com- 
missioner; "and shall also be in the nature of a court to 
which appeals may be made from any decision of the State 
School Commissioner upon any question touching the con- 
struction or administration of the school laws." Indiana has 
a composite board made up of the presidents of certain large 
educational institutions, superintendents of three largest 
cities, and three other persons, which board has extensive 
functions with regard to text-books and the certification of 
teachers. In California the State Board is composed, in 
addition to the Governor and the Superintendent of Public 
Instruction, of the presidents of the state normal schools and 
the State University, and the head of the pedagogical depart- 
ment of the university. This board, originally possessing 
only moderately important functions in advising the State 
Superintendent and in providing regulations and standards 
governing the certification of teachers, has, since the state 
has taken charge of the publication of text-books, had very 
important duties in this connection put upon it. Connecticut 
has a board of seven members, partly ex officio, partly elected 
by the General Assembly, which controls the use of text-books 
in the schools of the state, organizes teachers' meetings, en- 
forces laws regarding compulsory attendance of children at 



66 Educational Administrafion 

schools and their employment, has some powers in the matter 
of enforcing health conditions for children, and under special 
circumstances appoints local superintendents of schools. In 
addition, it has extensive powers of oversight through its 
secretary. The Massachusetts board, appointed by the Gov- 
ernor, each member serving eight years, has for many years 
exerted a powerful influence in the educational affairs of 
that state. It has little direct power and authority, but 
very extensive powers of publicity and recommendation. 
The history of its activities through its state agents is a 
matter of common information. It is interesting to note 
that just recently this board has taken on new functions, viz. : 
acting as a sort of central employment bureau for teach- 
ers, thus illustrating the tendency mentioned before of giving 
to the State Board functions that are necessary and cannot 
be conveniently placed elsewhere. 

Another interesting board in its composition and functions 
is that of New Jersey. Its members are appointed by the 
Governor from the various congressional districts. It man- 
ages the various state educational institutions, including the 
two normal schools, appoints county superintendents of 
schools, and, among other lesser functions, decides appeals 
from the decision of the State Superintendent. A similarly 
appointed board for the state of Montana, along with the 
usual list of duties, " has general control and supervision of 
the State University and the state educational institutions," 
and " appoints experienced teachers to act as instructors in 
the county institutes." The State Board of North Carolina, 
its members holding office ex officio, has corporate powers 
and controls the colored normal schools, is a State Text- 
book Commission, elects the directors of certain state in- 
stitutions, and is the agent of the state in making loans from 
the literary fund to aid districts in the erection of school 
buildings. 

The state of Washington has in effect two state boards, 
the State Board of Education and the Board of Higher 
Education. The first consists of four educators appointed 
by the Governor, and exercises supervision over the ele- 



American State Administration 67 

mentary schools through outlines of courses of study, cer- 
tification of teachers, and the determination of conditions 
of entrance to and graduation from the various types of 
schools. The Board of Higher Education is composed of 
the four members of the State Board together with the Presi- 
dents of the State University, State College, normal schools. 
This board fixes courses for the normal schools and prepara- 
tory requirements for the colleges, inspects high schools, and 
" shall arrange such courses and adopt and enforce such 
regulations as will place the state institution in harmonious 
relation with the common schools and with each other, and 
unify the work of the public school system." 

We have to note finally the composition and functions of 
the newly constituted Board of Regents of the state of New 
York, which serves as the Board of Education of a state with 
a highly centralized system of school administration. The 
recently reconstituted board has eleven members, elected for 
eleven years by the legislature and has power (after the 
present term of the Commissioner of Education shall have 
expired) to elect the Commissioner of Education to hold 
office at its pleasure. The powers of this board, direct and 
indirect, through its control of the office of Commissioner of 
Education, are very extensive, especially in the supervision 
of elementary and secondary education. 

In conclusion it may be noted that, as we traverse the 
several American states, we find numerous features of educa- 
tional administration in reference to which there is very con- 
siderable uniformity, and of which it is fairly safe to, make 
generalizations ; and others which show no settled character 
and which vary indefinitely among the states. To the latter 
class belong the state boards of education. It is evident 
that these yet form no integral factor in American education. 
In size, manner of composition, functions, and influence they 
vary indefinitely and widely. There is much uncertainty 
regarding their future, but it will subsequently be shown that 
with the progressive development of administration the im- 
portance of some body of this nature will greatly increase. 



68 Educational Administration 

4. THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 

Origins. — The growing complexity of the state organiza- 
tion of education produced during the first half of the nine- 
teenth century the office of State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction. It seems to have been developed before 1830 
by New York, Vermont, and Maryland; between 1830 and 
1850 by Connecticut, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, 
Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, New Hampshire, New 
Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin. 
Subsequently to 1850 all of the states except Delaware have 
made provision for it as a branch of the executive depart- 
ment of the state. 

Election. — In a large majority of states the Superinten- 
dent of Public Instruction is elected in the same way and for 
the same term as the Governor. Under these conditions of 
popular election it is exceptional to find any expert qualifica- 
tions required, the voters being left to determine what con- 
stitutes fitness for the office. Exceptions to this rule are 
found in Virginia, which requires by law that the man elected 
" shall be an experienced educator " ; North Dakota, which 
requires that he " shall have attained the age of twenty-five 
years and be a holder of a state certificate of the highest 
grade ;" Utah and Montana, which both require that he 
shall have attained the age of thirty and be either a graduate 
of a high-grade college or holder of the highest grade cer- 
tificate issued in the state ; and Wisconsin, where " no person 
shall be eligible to the office who shall not have taught or 
supervised teaching in the state of Wisconsin for a period of 
not less than five years." 

Appointment. — The office is filled through appointment 
from the General Assembly or legislature in Virginia, Ver- 
mont, Rhode Island, and New York (though in this state 
after the expiration of the term of the first Commissioner 
of Education in 1910, the office will be filled by the Regents). 
In New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, 
Minnesota, and Maine and one or two others, the Governor 
appoints. In Connecticut and Massachusetts the Board of 



American State Administration 69 

Education makes the appointment, and this will also be the 
case in New York after the expiration of the term of the 
first incumbent in the office of State Commissioner. The law 
rarely undertakes to designate the special qualifications of 
the man who shall be appointed ; an exception is Tennessee, 
which requires the Governor to nominate a man who " shall 
be a person of literary and scientific attainments, and of 
skill and experience in the art of teaching." 

The Functions of the State Superintendent of Public In- 
struction are variable in different states, yet there is much 
more of uniformity in this regard than is found in the case 
of the State Board. Being a salaried officer, usually with 
deputies and office staff, a considerable body of duties are 
regularly assigned to him by law. These may be classified 
as follows : {a) Statistical. In most of the states the county 
superintendents or local officials are required to make system- ' 
atic reports to the State Superintendent regarding the main 
facts of expenditure of school money, attendance at schools, 
and the terms of school maintained. These and other facts 
capable of statistical treatment are assembled by the State 
Superintendent and held for the use of the legislative body 
and the officials of the state. On the basis of the informa- 
tion thus collected the Superintendent is also able to make 
recommendations for legislation. {J?) Advisory and judicial. 
In many of the states the Superintendent acts as a court of 
final appeal in controversies affecting school trustees or 
county superintendents. " He shall render an opinion in 
writing to any school officer asking the same, touching the 
administration or construction of the school law." {c) Super- 
visory. Under the general terms of the law it is common to 
find the Superintendent charged with general supervision 
and oversight of the schools of the state. In practice there 
can be little direct supervision exercised by the office in the 
state of average size, but the possibilities of indirect super- 
vision are very great. An energetic superintendent with the 
large amount of information which is almost necessarily at 
his command, able to visit counties and confer with officials 
interested or charged with educational duties, and at times to 



JO Educational Administration 

address popular meetings, can bring about decided changes 
in the school system. It was along this line that Horace 
Mann produced much of the good that he accomplished for 
the schools of Massachusetts. In other states where the 
Superintendent has given special attention to some one phase 
of administration, the results have been apparent. In Ne- 
braska and Maine extensive campaigns for better school 
buildings have been carried on; in Wisconsin for better 
industrial and agricultural education ; in North Carolina for 
more generous local support of schools ; and in Indiana for the 
improvement of the professional qualifications of the teachers. 
In a few states the Superintendent is able to impose penalties 
upon communities failing to provide suitable school facilities. 
The state appropriation, for example, may be withheld from 
the negligent county or district. The actual enforcement of 
this penalty is however of rare occurrence, {d) Administra- 
tive. Frequently the Superintendent is authorized to distrib- 
ute state moneys to the counties or districts, although in 
other states this is the function of the County Auditor. In a 
few states he shares in the work of certificating teachers and 
in administering the state scheme of text-books. In some, as 
an ex-officio member of the boards of trustees of various 
state educational and charitable institutions, he has powers 
of direct management. Finally, in a number of states the 
Superintendent is directly authorized to hold, or require to 
be held, teachers' institutes. 

Special Functions of an administrative nature devolve upon 
the Superintendent in several states. In New Jersey he fills 
vacancies in the office of County Superintendent, subject to 
the approval of the President of the Board of Education, and 
in Pennsylvania he may remove county superintendents who 
are derelict in their duties. In Pennsylvania he is also given 
special powers of enforcing the truancy laws. In North 
Dakota he prepares the course of study for the state, and in 
Florida, Arkansas, South Dakota, and Montana he prepares 
questions for the teachers' examinations. In Maryland he is 
given special authority to indorse the diplomas of normal 
schools from other states, thus constituting them valid certifi- 



Awiericait State Administration 71 

cates for local use. In several Western states the State 
Superintendent may biennially convoke a meeting of county 
superintendents for the purpose of obtaining recommend- 
ations as to legislation, and in South Carolina he may simi- 
larly assemble the institutes' instructors, of the various 
counties. 

Centralizing Processes. ■ — • Generally speaking, it is and has 
been characteristic of the American state to provide compar- 
atively little machinery for state administration of education. 
The tendency has been to devolve large administrative re- 
sponsibilities upon the local authorities. But a considerable 
centralization of management has been made necessary, and 
the machinery for this, at first sight, has gradually increased 
in complexity. With the evolution, too, during the last half 
century, of a personal head for the state school system, there 
has been an increasing tendency to look to this administra- 
tive officer for guidance. The demand is strong that at the 
centre of the state machinery of school administration there 
shall be a true educational expert. This, many of the state 
superintendents have been, but it has been rather in spite of 
the system which selects them than because of it. In the 
earlier days of education, popular election or nomination by 
the legislature was not so unsuitable a method of selection, 
since what was largely wanted was a man of good ordinary 
civic capacity ; but with the rapid growth of important func- 
tions attaching to the office, the good citizen no longer suffices 
for the place. There is needed an expert educator of train- 
ing and experience, who shall have a continuous term of 
office, so that he may bring to bear in the administration of 
education the accumulated results of experience. Whether 
or not the future is to witness a general centralization of 
direct administrative functions in state government, and, in case 
that takes place, whether or not new boards and executive 
offices will be created for special purposes, in any case the 
supremely important functions attaching to the Superin- 
tendent's office will be counsel and publicity. Already the 
biennial reports of the state superintendents are educational 
documents of importance ; already the disposition of state 



']2 Educatio7tal Administration 

legislators and local administrators to look to the Superin- 
tendent for expert guidance has become a fixed tradition in 
educational administration ; and, from the work of the educa- 
tional expert who has, here and there, filled the Superintend- 
ent's office, it is evident that only the beginnings have been 
made in developing to the full this source of educational 
power. 

REFERENCES 

Clews, Elsie. Educational Legislation and Administration of the 
Colonial Government. New York, 1899. — Draper, A. S. Educa- 
tional Legislation in the United States in 1904, Ed. Rev. 29 : 387. — Draper, 

A. S. Organization and Administration (of Public Education), in 
Butler, Education in the United States. Albany, 1900. — Easton, Warren. 
Best System of State School Supervision, U. S. Bur. of Ed., Circ. of 
Inf. 1887 : no. 3, p. 156. — Elliot, E. C. State School Systems. A Summary 
of Legislation, Bui. U. S. Bur. of Ed. 1906: no. 3. — Fairlie, J. A. The 
CentraUzation of Administration in New York State. New York, 1898. — 
Fellow, H. C. A Study of School Supervision. Topeka, 1896. — Henderson, 
C. R. Social Elements. New York, 1900. — MacDonald, Wm. Government 
of Maine, its History and Administration. New York, 1902. — Parsons, J. B. 
Tendencies in School Legislation in 1903, Ed. Rev. 28 : 19. — Pickard, J. L. 
School Supervision. New York, 1890. — Prince, John T. School Admin- 
istration. Chaps. II, III. Syracuse, 1906. — Schaeffer, N. C. Powers and 
Duties of State Superintendents, Proc. N. E. A. 1895 : 350. — Webster, W. 
C. Recent Centralizing Tendencies in State Educational Administration, 
Col. Univ. Press. New York, 1897. — Woodburn, Jas. A. The American 
Republic and its Government. Chap. VII. New York, 1903. — Provisions 
concerning Education in State Constitutions, U. S. Com. of Ed. Report 
for 1 892-1 893 : 13 12. — State School Organization (for all states), Appendix 

B, Proc. N. E. A. for 1880. 



CHAPTER VI 

Local Units of Educational Administration 

Administrative Areas. — That the state is the legislative 
unit, but only slightly the administrative area in American 
education, has been shown in the previous chapter. Four 
kinds of local divisions of territory for educational purposes 
are, found : the county, the township or consolidated district, 
the city, and the school district proper. Some form of county 
administration is found in all the states except those of New 
England. 

Urban and Non-urban Areas. — In all the states the tendency 
has been for the cities to assume more and more of inde- 
pendent control of educational administration. Not only is 
this true in the relations of municipalities to the containing 
counties; by special legislation, charter privileges, and other 
permissive authorization, the cities have tended to become 
somewhat independent of state control and administration. 
The possession of greater wealth, of progressive citizens, 
and facilities for complex organization have enabled them to 
become autonomous to a considerable degree. Hence the 
other forms of territorial organization — district, township, 
county — are primarily concerned with the administration of 
non-urban education. Within these, excluding cities which 
have developed their own types of centralized organization, 
we see steady tendencies toward centralization.^ 

Differentiation between County and District. — In the dis- 
tribution of administrative functions between county and dis- 
trict or township we find great variety in the states of the 
_ Union. The county is of most importance in the South and 

^The newly adopted constit^ution of Utah expressly exempts cities of the 
second and third class from the operations of county governments in school 
affairs. 

73 



74 Educational Administration 

West and of least in the New England states, where no county 
officials appear. The reasons for this, to a large extent, lie in 
the fact that American institutions have taken on their char- 
acter from the necessities of frontier life. The conditions of 
the settlement of early New England developed the towns, 
while the plantation conditions of the South tended to foster 
the county as the unit of local administration. In the sparsely 
settled West the counties were created early in the history of 
the states, and the organization of local school districts, made 
necessary by the great distances, proceeded under the direc- 
tion of the county, the latter usually retaining those general 
features of administration which it seemed best not to sur- 
render to the local districts. In the newer states the general 
tendency is to have the county assume responsibility for the 
certification of teachers, the establishment of a course of study, 
the selection of text-books, the auditing of accounts, the 
custody of funds, the collection of taxes, and the general 
supervision of administration. To the minor area, usually 
the district, is left the employment of teachers, erecting of 
buildings, oversight of instruction, and the disciplining of 
pupils. 

Special Influences. — While general causes like those de- 
scribed above have usually been responsible for the existing 
distribution of administrative functions between county and 
minor areas, special influences have also at times been opera- 
tive. For example, a widespread fear of the effect of the 
negro vote has been undoubtedly at the bottom of the distinct 
centralizing tendencies found in the Southern states since the 
period of the Civil War. In the formation of the systems of 
public education the states undertook to protect localities 
from excessive taxation by themselves raising the necessary 
funds and prescribing maximums of taxation beyond which 
the local government could not go. Large responsibilities 
were, for the same reasons, also conferred upon state and 
county authorities as against those of the minor divisions. 
On the other hand, distrust of the state government because 
of the intrusion of corrupt politics has at times been an active 
force in securing greater local administrative authority. In 



Local Units of Educational Administration 75 

some instances a state system of preparing questions for 
teachers' examinations has been given up because questions 
were sold. The utter inefficiency of district administration 
has at times been the cause of active steps toward centraliza- 
tion, as was the case in Massachusetts under the publicity 
made possible through Horace Mann ; while at present in some 
Western and Southern states educators desire the substitution 
of a town or county organization for the same reason. 



I. THE COUNTY AS A UNIT OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 

Area of County. — All American states are divided into 
counties which are not unlike those of England in size, but 
usually much less populous. The average English county has 
an area of about looo square miles, and, outside of its large 
cities which are separately organized, has a population of 
300,000. In America the county has an average area of 1050 
square miles ; but the median area is 650 square miles. 
Nearly two-thirds range between 300 and 900 square miles, 
and the most common size is from 400 to 650 square miles. 
As a unit of school administration it can easily be seen that 
the county is convenient for some purposes, and quite un- 
suitable for others. Close and constructive supervision of in- 
struction in the county is quite impossible, owing to distances, 
even if, from the standpoint of population, it were practicable. 

Population of County. — For a time the growth of popula- 
tion of the state is accompanied by a further division of large 
counties into small, but later this process stops, and they are 
permitted to increase the number of inhabitants indeiinitely. 
The census of 1900 shows that the average population of 
American counties was about 26,646, but this high average is 
made up partly by some very thickly settled counties in 
Eastern states. The median population was in the neighbor- 
hood of 18,000, and the facts are still more accurately shown 
by the statement that more than half range between 10,000 
and 30,000. In the North Atlantic states over half have more 
than 50,000, while in the Southern states more than half have 
over 5000 and less than 20,000 population. Since the above 



76 Educational Administration 

averages include urban as well as non-urban inhabitants, it is 
evident that the size of the population groups which come 
directly under county school administration will be even 
smaller, on the whole. Roughly, the schools are concerned 
with a number of children representing from one-fifth to one 
sixth of all the people. In a county of 20,000 inhabitants the 
schools would contain from 3000 to 4000 children. Since the 
number of teachers in rural schools is considerably greater 
in proportion to the number of children than in city schools, 
it is evident that a county of 20,000 people would, as a rule, 
contain considerably over 100 teachers, many of whom, in the 
rural districts, would have no supervision except such as is ex- 
ercised by boards of trustees and by county superintendents. 
Other Divisions. — For purposes of supervision a few states 
have formed administrative areas larger than the county. 
Virginia has constituted the division with its Superintendent, 
who partakes partly of the functions of the State, and partly 
of County, Superintendent. Nevada has abolished county 
superintendencies, and established large supervisory districts 
composed of several counties. In New York the supervisory 
district is smaller than the county, being the legislative as- 
sembly district, while in Wisconsin it is possible to divide the 
larger counties for purposes of school administration into two 
divisions, each with a superintendent. 

2. THE COUNTY SCHOOL BOARD 

Centralized Management of educational work within the 
county is relatively rare except in the South Atlantic division 
and in two Gulf states. But county boards of education are 
common, frequently to supplement the work of the County 
Superintendent of Schools, and to perform certain general 
and advisory functions. Since such matters as the prepara- 
tion of courses of study and the conduct of examinations for 
certificates can be best carried on by committees rather than 
by individuals, it is natural that these duties should fall to 
the boards of education. 

Functions of County Boards. — In some of the Southern 



Local Units of Educational Administration jj 

states the County Board becomes the chief authority in the 
management of schools. In Maryland, for example, "the 
Board of County School Commissioners shall have the general 
supervision and control of all the schools of their respective 
counties ; " " shall locate, build, and furnish schoolhouses ; " 
" shall adopt, purchase, change, when deemed expedient, and 
distribute text-books, and furnish the same free of cost ; " 
"appoint principals of all high schools," and with advice 
of principal " appoint all assistant teachers," " consolidate 
schools " and " pay necessary costs of transporting pupils," 
etc. Among their other duties this board appoints district 
trustees who, naturally, have few duties except those per- 
taining to general oversight of schools, and custody of public 
property. 

Florida furnishes another example of large centralization. 
The County Board of Public Instruction shall acquire and 
hold property, locate and maintain schools, appoint a super- 
visor for each school, employ teachers, prescribe courses of 
study, and even select candidates for admission to the state 
colleges and seminaries. The County Superintendent is 
simply its executive agent. The board is elected by popular 
vote, which is very unusual. 

In Virginia the County Board is composed of the Division 
Superintendent of Schools and the trustees of the various 
districts. The powers of this large body pertain mainly to the 
administration of property used for education, and to the ap- 
portionment of funds. 

In Missouri we have an example of a small county board 
which consists of the Commissioner of Education and two 
additional appointed members whose duties are mainly con- 
cerned with the issuance of teachers' certificates and promotion 
of teachers' meetings. But it is also possible for counties in this 
state to adopt another form of school administration in which 
all the functions above noted, and others, will be centred in 
one superintendent who has full supervision of all non-urban 
schools. 

An interesting example of a county school board designed to 
combine lay and professional administration is found in Indiana, 



V 



y8 Educatio7ial Administration 

where it is composed of the County Superintendent of Schools, 
and the chairmen of the school trustees of each town and city 
in the county. Its functions extend to general oversight of 
school property, changes of text-books, purchases of furni- 
ture, etc. 

In California the County Board of Education tends to 
become a professional body under the requirement of the 
law that a majority of its members must be experienced 
teachers holding valid certificates. In addition to adopting 
text-books, formulating courses of study, and examining can- 
didates for teachers' certificates, it acts as an advisory body 
to the County Superintendent, and even aids indirectly in 
supervising schools. The office is important because the 
most influential teachers and principals in the county accept 
membership. 

Unsettled Character of County Boards. — No uniformity of 
practice yet exists among the various states in regard to the 
functions, size, term of office, method of selection, and quali- 
fications of the County Board. Often created to perform some 
special function, it has been made the recipient of others as 
these developed through legislation. In a measure they are 
losing as well as gaining in authority; for as matters like the 
adoption of text-books, examination of teachers, and conduct 
of institutes pass under state control, the county loses in 
authority. Rarely has the board proven equal to the task 
of supervision; if composed of teachers, these are already 
engaged, and can attend board meetings only at leisure times; 
if composed of laymen, they are not qualified to inspect 
schools. The board may assist the County Superintendent 
in conducting examinations, and it may greatly help him in 
maintaining educational standards. 

Until some of the problems discussed in the next chapter 
shall have been settled, it is safe to say that the place and 
functions of the county boards will remain unsettled and 
fluent. The probability is that in proportion as expert 
qualifications are demanded in the Superintendent, the County 
Board will tend to become an unsalaried body, partly, at least, 
composed of laymen chosen by popular vote, who will ap- 



/ 



Local Units of Educational Administration 79 

point the Superintendent and have the power of veto and 
approval of policies recommended by him. Its functions 
would then proportionately increase as the county replaced 
the town and district in administrative authority. It 
would also organize the supervisory work of the county, 
under the oversight of the Superintendent. 

In several of the states where the district system is not 
giving satisfaction, state superintendents greatly favor the 
development of a county system of management. There are 
too many school officials, and too much variability in effi- 
ciency. The district management is wasteful, and trustees 
have no capacity for selecting the best teachers. Especially 
in those Southern states which have retained the district 
system is there protest, partly because, owing to the neces- 
sity of separate schools for the races, there exist numberless 
poor, small, ineffectively managed districts. The Superin- 
tendent of North Dakota finds the district objectionable, 
and has favored the township, but has recently come to the 
conclusion that the county unit would be better. " The county, 
as a unit of school organization, with a county board of educa- 
tion elected by the people and controlling the educational 
affairs of the county, especially as to the rural schools, would 
be a long step in advance, so far as the results upon educa- 
tional progress are concerned. The board would elect as its 
professional adviser a county superintendent of schools who 
would direct, subject to the approval of the county board of 
education, the strictly educational affairs of the county. That 
portion of the work which pertains to the levying of taxes, 
issuing of bonds, building and repairing of schoolhouses, 
would be under control of this board." At present he com- 
plains there are as many standards as there are districts. 
He thinks economy would result. This board as proposed 
would : (i) be responsible to the people; (2) give a uniform 
standard ; (3) result through state and county superintendents 
in a uniform standard for the state ; (4) eliminate local quar- 
rels and much friction ; (5) and result in a wiser and ultimately 
more economical expenditure of money. 



8o Educational Adfninistration 

3. THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 

Importance of County Administration. — During the last 
half century in the older states (except those of New Eng- 
land) and since their foundation in the newer, the most im- 
portant educational office for the county has been that of 
County Superintendent. Often an elective office, there is, 
nevertheless, a tendency to require that a certificated and 
experienced educator shall fill it, and in the course of time, 
just as in the case of the office of City Superintendent of 
Schools, important duties tend to be attached to it. As the 
county becomes the centre for the certification of teachers, 
selection of text-books, formulation of courses of study, audit 
and oversight of the managerial work of local boards of trus- 
tees, the after-training of teachers, supervision of instruction, 
and other functions that by their nature invite centraliza- 
tion, these functions tend to devolve upon the County 
Superintendent. 

Popular Election. — Generally speaking, county superin- 
tendents throughout the Northern and Western states are 
popularly elected for terms of from two to four years. An 
educational requirement may be imposed, varying from " he 
shall be a person of literary and scientific attainments, and, 
when practicable, of skill and experience in the art of teach- 
ing," ^ and " he shall be a person of good moral habits, 
literary acquirement, and skill and experience in the art of 
teaching " ; to the more specific one that " no person shall 
be ehgible who does not hold at least a first grade county 
certificate issued in this state and in force at the time of his 
election," ^ or he " must hold a professional certificate, first 
or second grade, or state certificate, or be a graduate of an 
accredited college or normal school, and must have taught 
at least eighteen months." ^ The net effect of these restric- 
tions, coupled with the fact that the salary paid fails to at- 
tract the ablest teachers, is that the County Superintendent 
is usually an average member of the teaching profession 
of his county. Occasionally the method of popular election 
1 Tennessee. ^ Nebraska. ^ Kansas. 



Local Units of Educational Administration 8i 

brings to the front a personality of more than usual force, in 
which case the schools may experience a decided uplift. 

Appointment. — In some of the Southern states where the 
County Board of Education is responsible for the direct man- 
agement of the schools, the Superintendent is elected by this 
board and acts as its agent. This is the case in Maryland, 
North Carolina, and Louisiana. In Pennsylvania " The 
school directors of the several counties shall meet in conven- 
tion at the seat of justice of the proper county on the first 
Monday of June next, and on the first Tuesday of May 
in each year thereafter, and select by viva voce vote by a 
majority of the whole number of directors present one person 
of literary and scientific acquirements, and of skill and experi- 
ence in the art of teaching, as county superintendent for the 
three succeeding school years." 

In Indiana, also, the township trustees elect the County 
Superintendent, the qualifications being that he shall be a 
resident of the county, and hold a higher grade teacher's 
certificate. In New Jersey the State Board appoints for three 
years " a suitable person " who must hold a state teacher's 
certificate. In Delaware the Governor appoints the County 
Superintendent for a term of two years. The professional 
requirements are twenty months' experience and other cre- 
dentials. Under the old law the Superintendent in Ohio 
counties was appointed by the judges, but his functions 
have, under the new statute, been absorbed by the local 
superintendents of districts. The County Court appoints in 
Tennessee and Arkansas.^' ^ 

1 In 1904 the Legislative Committee of the Minnesota Educational Associa- 
tion recommended a change in the law whereby there should be created a county 
board of four, elected from each commissioner's district, continuous in character, 
holding office for four years and paid actual expenses. This board should elect 
the County Superintendent, who must hold the highest certificate for two years. 
The board should also have power to condemn school buildings and to approve 
all plans for new ones. The Superintendent should be paid a higher salary than 
now, based on number of districts. 

2 The State Superintendent of North Dakota discusses the problem of getting 
the most effective service for this post, and concludes that popular election will 
not do. "The best method would be a county educational board of five or seven 
members to whom shall be given, among other powers, that of electing the 

G 



82 Educational Administration 

Functions. — County superintendents of schools perform a 
variety of functions, administrative, supervisory, and judicial. 
Since district boards of trustees or directors are frequently 
uninformed, the Superintendent finds it necessary to educate 
them to their duties and to harmonize differences. In execut- 
ing the state law with regard to the distribution of monies his 
work is purely formal, and in some states these functions are 
transferred to the auditor and treasurer of the county. Not 
infrequently he conducts examinations of pupils for the pur- 
pose of preserving the standard of common education through- 
out the county. In California, in connection with the County 
Board, he is required by law to examine all graduates from 
the elementary schools. In Nebraska he examines applicants 
for admission to the state normals. In connection with the 
unsold public lands belonging to the schools he has, in a few 
cases, powers of oversight. Recommendations regarding the 
changes of districts boundaries often emanate from him, 
though seldom has he final authority to make such changes. 
The following statement of the functions of the County Super- 
intendent in Kansas is fuller than usual, but indicates fairly 
the conditions which usually prevail. 

" It shall be the duty of the County Superintendent of Public Instruction 
to visit each school at least once each term of six months, correcting any 
deficiency that may exist in the government of the school, the classification 
of the pupils, or the methods of instruction in the several branches taught ; 
to make such suggestions in private to the teachers as he shall deem proper 
and necessary to the welfare of the school ; to note the character and condi- 

County Superintendent. Such a board, chosen at the school election in June, 
would undoubtedly select a county superintendent on the basis of qualification. 
The selection of city superintendent and principal by small boards of education is 
concluded to be the proper way to insure consideration of the qualities which 
should govern the choice of the head of any school system. It is true that such 
a method is not in accord with our state constitution, nevertheless a constitution 
can be amended. 

"Another method which would undoubtedly be an improvement over our 
present is the selection of the County Superintendent by a convention of school 
officers assembled for such a purpose. This, too, is contrary to the constitutional 
provision. The only way now open is to have the election at the same time as 
the annual June election of school officers, with a provision prohibiting any party 
nomination or designation." 



Local Units of Educational Administration 83 

tion of the schoolhouse, furniture, apparatus, and grounds, and make a 
report in writing to the district board, making suggestions that in his 
opinion shall improve the same ; to examine the accounts and record 
books of the district officers, and see that they are kept as required by law ; 
to encourage the formation of associations of teachers and educators for 
mutual improvement, and, as far as possible, to attend the meetings of such 
associations, and participate in the exercises of the same ; to attend the 
normal held in his county, using his influence to secure the attendance of 
teachers ; to make daily a personal inspection of the work of the institute 
in session and keep a record of the same in his office, and do such work in 
connection with the exercises of the institute as he may deem necessary ; 
to hold a public meeting in each school district of his county at least 
once a year, for the purpose of discussing school questions and elevating 
the standard of education ; to keep his office open at the county seat, 
Saturday of each week, and in counties in which a superintendent receives 
a salary of more than $600 per annum, he shall keep his office open when 
not necessarily absent attending to his official duties. He shall keep a 
complete record of his official acts ; a record of the name, age, and post- 
office address of each candidate for a teacher's certificate, with the number 
of weeks said candidate has attended a normal school or institute, the 
number of weeks he has taught, his standing in each study, and the date 
of issue and expiration of each certificate granted. He shall keep a regis- 
ter of the teachers employed in his county, giving name of teacher, number 
of the district in which he is employed, dates of opening and closing term, 
salary per month, grade of certificate, and date of Superintendent's visit. 
He shall keep a record of the semiannual apportionments of the state and 
county school funds, and such other statistical records as shall be required 
in making reports to the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. He 
shall make out and transmit to the State Superintendent, on the last Mon- 
day of March, June, September, and December of each year, a report, show- 
ing the number of school visits made, with the average length of time 
spent in such visits. . . . He shall apportion the state school fund within 
his county. . . . He shall, on or before the 15th of October of each year, 
make out and transmit in writing to the State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction a report bearing date October i, containing a statement of the 
number of school districts or parts of districts in the county, and the num- 
ber of children and their sex, resident in each, over the age of five and 
under the age of twenty-one years ; a statement of the number of district 
schools in the county, the length of time a school has been taught in each, 
the number of scholars attending the same, their sex, the branches taught 
and the text-books used, the number of teachers employed in the same, 
and their sex ; a statement of the number of private or select schools in 
the county, so far as the same can be ascertained, and the number of 
teachers employed in the same, their sex, and the branches taught ; a 
statement of the number of graded schools in the county, the length of time 
school has been taught in each, and the number of scholars attending the 



84 Educational Administration 

same, their sex, and the branches taught, the number of teachers employed 
in the same, and their sex ; a statement of the condition of the normal school, 
where such school has been established, the number of students attending 
the same, their sex, and the number of teachers employed in the same, and 
their sex ; a statement of the county normal institute ; a statement of the 
number of academies and colleges in the county, and the number of stu- 
dents attending the same, and their sex, the number of teachers employed 
in each, and their sex ; a statement of the amount of money received in 
each district or parts of districts, and what portion of the same, if any, has 
been appropriated to the support of graded schools ; a statement of the 
amount of money raised in each district by tax and paid for teachers' 
wages, in addition to the public money paid therefor ; the amount of 
money raised by tax or otherwise for the purpose of purchasing school site, 
for building, hiring, purchasing, repairing, furnishing, or insuring such 
schoolhouse, or for any other purpose allowed by law, in the district or 
parts of districts." 

Compensation. — The salary of the County Superintendent 
is usually fixed by law, and the statutes often contain sched- 
ules of payment according to the size of the county or its 
population. If the county has many schools, the Superintend- 
ent is prohibited from taking up other employment. In some 
cases he is paid a certain percentage of the amount of money 
he apportions to the schools. In Illinois up to 1905 it was 
provided: — 

" County Superintendents shall receive in full for all services rendered by 
them, commissions as follows : three per cent commission upon the amount 
of sales of school lands, etc. ; two per cent commission upon all sums dis- 
tributed, paid, or loaned by them for the support of schools. For other 
duties required by law to be performed by them, four dollars per day for the 
actual number of days spent by them in the performance of such duties 
. . . and one dollar a day for expenses in visitation. " 

But the assembly of 1905 changed this, and prepared a 
schedule of salaries ranging from ^1250 to ^7500. 

In New Jersey, where the county superintendents are 
appointed by the State Board, the compensation was formerly 
12 1 cents for each name on the school census ; in 1900 it was 
fixed at ^7 per teacher employed, but it should not go below 
j^iooo nor above $1300. In 1902 these numbers were fixed 
at $8, $1300, and $2000 respectively. In 1905 the law fixed 
a uniformed salary of ^2000 and expenses, paid by the state. 



Local Units of Educational Administration 85 

Quite commonly the County Superintendent gives only part 
time to administrative functions, and is paid accordingly. This 
position is very unsatisfactory, and is one that progressive 
states have largely modified. 

Place in Administration. — The county superintendency, 
like that of the city, has come to be a characteristic feature of 
American public education. It is doubtful if the office declines 
in importance ; rather with the tendencies toward centrali- 
zation it will grow in dignity, qualifications, and compen- 
sation. Rural supervision will probably be organized under 
the leadership of the Superintendent. The method of selec- 
tion must change in many cases before a real advance can 
come ; popular election will not suffice as a means of choos- 
ing experts. In time special training will be required, and 
the post will offer a career to ambitious young men and women 
entering on educational work. Even with the consoHdation 
of districts and the assumption by the state of some phases 
of administration, the educational possibilities of the county 
superintendency will increase. 



4. MINOR AREAS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 

Types of Local Area. — Just as we find the importance of 
the county to vary in respect to educational administration 
from New England, where its functions are negligible, to some 
of the Southern states, where it becomes the area of chief im- 
portance, with the Central and Western states representing 
intermediate types — so we find large differences with regard to 
the character and functions of the minor administrative areas. 
Three kinds of local organization are distinguishable, though 
these are not always distinct in form. They are the incor- 
porated city or town, the township, and the district. 

Democratic Character. — The importance of the local school 
area arises from the fact that under the American ideals of 
large local powers of self-government, such matters as the 
provision of school buildings and other facilities, the employ- 
ment of teachers, the supervision of education, and the en- 



86 Educational Administration 

forcement of educational standards are all left to the local 
authorities, frequently with only a minimum of direction 
exercised by law, and by state and county supervision. Fre- 
quently, of all local territorial units — road, sanitary, and 
magisterial districts, or election precincts — the school district 
is the only one charged with large responsibilities in the way of 
raising and expending money. Except in some of the Southern 
states, the town or district organized for school purposes is 
the only surviving form of government which necessitates the 
annual meeting of citizens. Whether or not this annual meet- 
ing is still of importance — and the facts show that it is losing 
its influence — it remains true that the representatives of the 
people there elected are, of all officials, those nearest to their 
constituents in responsibility and representative character. In 
most of the states the town and district as areas of school 
administration are still thoroughly democratic, and as such 
tend to show in relief both the merits and weaknesses of gov- 
ernment more or less directly by the people. In passing it 
may be noted that it is in connection with elections for school 
officials that we have the widest development of the suffrage. 
In a large number of states women are permitted to vote and 
to hold office in local school administration. The democratic 
district meetings, found in about half the states, elect school 
officers, determine amounts of money to be raised, locate school 
sites, and sometimes decide other questions of school manage- 
ment. Generally speaking, they call out less attendance than 
formerly, and the tendency is for the voters to simply elect 
officials for local management, who call special meetings for 
purposes of selecting school sites, voting taxes, and other im- 
portant matters. 

District i^*. Township. — As between the district and town- 
ship form of organization, leaving out of consideration the 
New England town, which absorbs functions ordinarily found 
in county government, the tendency would seem to be in the 
direction of favoring the larger division. In many of the 
states recent laws permit consolidation, and these consolidated 
districts, with provision for the transportation of pupils, tend 
to emphasize the development of central schools and the abo- 



Local Units of Educational Administration 87 

lition of the small local schools with irregular and uncertain 
attendance. The township organization practically means the 
larger area from which abler school officials can be selected, 
and within which the burden of taxation can be somewhat 
more equitably distributed. In some states provision is made 
for supervision of township schools which would be imprac- 
ticable under the form of the isolated district. 

Typical Districts. — The organization, powers, administrative 
machinery, and tendencies of the minor units of educational 
administration can best be shown by examples from typical 
states. The district system as found in Western states is 
typified by that of Oregon. Every county of the state is di- 
vided by a district boundary board into districts of three classes : 
the first being areas with 1000 or more children of school age, 
the second with from 200 to 1000 school children, and the 
third having less than 200. In districts of the first class 
the governing board shall be five members and a clerk, 
and in the other two classes the board consists of 
three members and a clerk, — all elected by ballot; 
at which election any man or woman owning property and 
being a resident citizen is entitled to vote. The law pro- 
vides for an annual meeting of electors. The district school 
board must conform to certain formalities in meeting, and has 
its powers indicated by law. It may exclude refractory pupils 
from school, provide fuel and suppHes, engage teachers (who 
must be certificated elsewhere), admit pupils from other dis- 
tricts, buy books for indigent pupils (when directed by vote 
of the district), and audit all claims against the school. In 
districts of the second and third class the board must use the 
course of study prepared by the state. Acting under direc- 
tion of a meeting of school electors, the board may change 
the site of the school, establish kindergartens (except in third 
class districts), permit the schoolhouse to be used for other 
than school purposes, contract debt (not to exceed five per 
cent of assessed valuation of district), call an election for 
the issuance of bonds, provide for the transportation of pupils, 
and, finally, suspend a district if the school attendance does 
not justify its continued existence. Districts of the first class 



88 Educational Administration 

may have a board of examiners and may choose text-books 
additional to those designated by the State Text-book Commis- 
sion. They are authorized to have a superintendent of schools, 
and to frame their own course of study — powers, of course, 
that go with city school administration everywhere. 

New York Types. — In New York state, besides cities having 
a population of 5000 and upward, there are recognized three 
types of school districts : common, union free, and common 
school districts with more than 300 school children. In the 
common school district an annual meeting of electors is held 
on a prescribed evening of each year, at which men and women 
who own property or have children of school age may vote. 
This meeting elects school trustees, designates school sites, 
and may vote a variety of taxes for buying school sites, build- 
ing, or renting of schoolhouses, purchase of supplies, purchase 
of school library, payment of teachers' salaries, and transporta- 
tion of pupils. The trustees elected at this meeting must en- 
force a tax for teachers' salaries if the meeting itself fails to 
do it. The district may decide whether it will have a board 
of three trustees or one trustee, in addition to district clerk 
and treasurer. The district board has the usual power of 
employing teachers, caring for and insuring school property, 
etc., but must accept the course of study from the school com- 
missioner, and is subject to the district meeting in the selection 
of text-books. The control of the County School Commissioner 
over the common school district is considerable, as he may 
alter boundaries, condemn building, and determine suitability 
of instruction. 

The union free school district of New York state has 
larger powers than the common school district. It may em- 
brace several schools, may establish schools for secondary 
education, has considerable powers of local taxation, includ- 
ing the right to decide as to whether free text-books shall be 
provided, and through its board of education, which may vary 
in size from three to nine, it can fix for its own schools 
a course of study, can select text-books, and, in districts hav- 
ing more than 5000 population, employ a superintendent who 
shall be partly paid by state funds. 



Local Uizits of Educational Administration 89 

Town System. — Massachusetts provides an example of the 
town system working in its pure type. Under the town is now 
no separate district, and over it the state exercises partial ad- 
ministrative authority in educational matters. Large powers 
of raising taxes, establishing special kinds of schools, as second- 
ary and industrial, selecting text-books, formulating courses of 
study, electing teachers and fixing their terms of office, elect- 
ing superintendents, examining teachers, providing for the 
consolidation"- of schools and the transportation of pupils, 
and numerous others belong to the town. Limiting the town 
school committee are the state laws which impose obligations 
of raising money sufficient for the support of public educa- 
tion, establishing certain types of schools, arranging either 
within the town or in a group of towns for the employment 
of an expert superintendent, and of securing medical inspec- 
tion of schools. Over the town committees is also the State 
Board, but with comparatively little power besides that of 
recommendation, except in cases where the law is manifestly 
being left unfulfilled. 

Other New England states show also extensive develop- 
ment of the town basis of organization. The towns of New 
Hampshire are called school districts, but resemble the 
Massachusetts town in extent and administrative functions. 
School districts, as the division of the town, have been abol- 
ished in Maine, with certain exceptions. In Connecticut we 
find a combination of town and district system, ** Each town 
shall have power to form, unite, alter, and dissolve school 
districts and parts of school districts within its limits ; and 
two or more towns may form school districts of adjoining 
portions of their respective towns." Special provision is 
made for consolidation, however. " Any town may abolish 
all the school districts, within its limits, and assume main 
control of the schools therein . . . and for this purpose 
every such town shall constitute one school district." Where 
the organized district is found, it elects a school committee of 
three, who exercise ordinary powers of trustees, subject to 
inspection by the school visitors of the town. In the event 
of the district's failing to fulfil its obligations, it becomes the 



90 Educational AdTninistration 

duty of the school visitors of the town to perform them, even 
to the extent of electing teachers. The board of school visi- 
tors must approve plans of building, make course of study, 
prescribe text-books, examine teachers, form supervision dis- 
tricts, and generally supervise the schools. It is evident 
that the relation of the town to the district in Connecticut is 
not unlike the relation of the county to the district in some 
Southern and Western states. 

Dual System. — A system combining township and district 
is found in Iowa. There the county, as the larger unit for 
school administration, is divided into township and indepen- 
dent districts, and the school township is divided into sub- 
districts. Provision is made for annual meetings of electors 
in both school township and subdistrict. Each subdistrict 
elects one director, and these directors form the school board 
for the township, and have large responsibilities in local 
school administration. The board employs teachers, organ- 
izes schools, selects text-books, subject to the direction of 
the annual meeting. But the director of the subdistrict may 
be authorized by the school township board to employ 
teachers for his subdistrict, make contracts for fuel and sup- 
plies, and he must also enforce the compulsory education 
law. Large permissive powers are given to the school town- 
ship board in the matter of establishing secondary and other 
higher schools and in providing for supervision. 

Indiana presents also an interesting example of combina- 
tion of town and district system. There is a well-organized 
form of county administration, but the largest responsibility 
for local school management resides in the single trustee of 
the township (this does not apply to municipalities) who has 
general charge of the various schools. But each township is 
also divided into districts, in each of which the voters elect a 
director who acts as medium of communication between the 
district and the township trustee. The director has general 
charge of the schoolhouse, and exercises some supervision 
over the school, but his powers are few and limited. He 
may in several directions make recommendations to the town- 
ship trustee, but his direct authority is small On the other 



Local Units of Educational Administration 91 

hand, the power of the township trustee is great, almost 
autocratic. He fixes the course of study. The township 
trustees of the entire county constitute the County Board of 
Education who elect the County Superintendent and select 
text-books for use in the county, subject to the restrictions of 
the existing state list, and they also have considerable powers 
in the appropriation of funds. 

In Ohio, outside of the cities, the government of the 
schools is in the hands of the township board, which has the 
power to form, change, or abolish subdistricts. Here, again, 
we find each subdistrict entitled to elect a director who has, 
however, little authority. On the other hand, boards of edu- 
cation for townships, villages, and cities have large authority, 
partly owing to the fact that in Ohio the county administra- 
tion of education is slight. There is a county board of exami- 
ners, but no county superintendent of schools ; consequently 
the control and inspection of schools falls mostly on local 
boards. The selection of text-books (within minor restric- 
tions imposed by state law), fixing of courses of study, estab- 
lishing special schools, and provision of expert supervision are 
powers all devolved upon the town, village, and city boards. 

Growing Prominence of District. — The school district in 
the process of gaining rather than losing is to be found not 
only in the Western but also in certain Southern states. In 
Alabama prior to 1903 the county was divided into town- 
ships, in each of which there were three trustees to organize 
schools, elect teachers, and apportion money among the vari- 
ous schools, white and colored. But in 1903 a law was 
passed providing for the abolition of school townships and 
the substitution therefor of school districts to be formed by 
a county districting board in such a manner that a school 
might be located within two and one-half miles of each child 
of school age, provided no district should be formed with less 
than fifteen school children. Provision is made for the elec- 
tion of three district trustees holding office for four years, 
who have considerable powers in the way of electing teachers 
and supervising schools, subject to the approval of the 
County Board of Education, which in smaller districts still 



92 Edticational Administration 

holds the title to school property and exercises full supervi- 
sory control. An interesting provision of the law, however, 
provides means whereby certain districts may become quite 
independent of the County Board. 

" Whenever there shall have been established in any school district a 
system of graded schools free to the children of school age within such 
district, for a period of not less than eight months in each year, the electors 
of such district may increase the number of district trustees to five, and 
assume entire control of the public schools therein ; provided, the trustees 
of such districts shall make all reports required by law to the County Board 
of Education." 

In Florida the powers of the County Board of Public In- 
struction are almost complete with regard to schools, and the 
ordinary district is a very inconspicuous form of organization. 
The County Board holds all school property, locates schools, 
elects teachers, and appoints at the request of patrons a local 
supervisor of schools who is naturally a layman serving with- 
out pay. But the law now provides for the formation of 
" special tax districts," wherein the electors have indicated 
their willingness to subject themselves to a special tax for two 
years for the provision of additional school facilities. In such 
special tax district a board of three trustees is elected, who 
assume the functions hitherto exercised by the supervisor, 
and who shall nominate teachers, subject to the approval of 
the County Board. 

In other Southern states the district and County systems 
prevail, with varying distribution of powers. In Mississippi 
are two types of district, — ordinary and separate, in the for- 
mer of which the County Superintendent is clothed with the 
power to appoint teachers if the trustees fail to act. In 
Georgia 

"The county boards of education, whenever, in their opinion, the good 
of the schools demand it, may at their discretion appoint three intelligent, 
upright citizens of each subdistrict (the only form of school district) of 
their respective counties to act as school trustees for their subdistricts. 
... It shall be the duty of these school trustees to supervise the school 
operations of their subdistricts, to visit the schools, and to make such 
recommendations to the county boards ... as may seem to them best." 



Local Ufiits of Educational Administration 93 

Variability of Local Units. — The above represent in a 
rough way types of local organization. But it must be re- 
membered that each state is evolving its own system and each 
has its peculiarities. From the above discussion it is appar- 
ent that certain large qualities of organization have been es- 
tablished in sections of the nation, so that we can speak of 
the town system of New England, the strong county and 
weak district system of the South, the balanced county and 
district system of the West, and the combination of county, 
town, and district systems of the Central states. 

The school system of Texas in the early days was organ- 
ized on the so-called " community " plan. Under this system 
a teacher or other interested party could get on a petition the 
names of a number of children, who could attend the school, 
and the names of their parents, and send this to the county 
authorities, who proceeded to appoint three trustees for the 
year and make necessary state appropriations. At the end 
of the year the school dissolved. At one time almost the 
entire state was under this fluent organization, but now only 
a few counties retain it, and these secure the teachers with 
lowest certificates. Local taxes for school purposes are im- 
possible under the community system. 

The influence of imitation from state to state, exercised by 
educators who have moved from one part of the country to 
another, and by legislators studying various systems with a 
view to more effective legislation, has been prominent ; but 
equally so has been the influence of local conditions of geog- 
raphy, industry, and educational ideals. The agricultural 
character of the South and distrust of purely local suffrage 
has often developed a system of strong county control ; the 
wide areas of the Western states and the irregular distribu- 
tion of population makes the township impracticable, and 
contributes to strengthen district management with regard to 
affairs exclusively local, but also strengthens county and state 
control and administration in such matters as admit of general 
action. The process of settling the agricultural Central states 
developed the district, but the need of more businesslike man- 
agement and of central schools is tending undoubtedly to 



94 Educational Administration 

strengthen the township at the expense of the district. On 
the other hand, the district as conceived in some sections of 
the sparsely settled South may resemble in extent and popu- 
lation the township of the more thickly settled Central states. 

Consolidation. — An important movement in recent years 
has been in the direction of consolidation. The larger district 
formed by uniting several small ones differs from the town- 
ship in that but one school may remain under charge of the 
Board of Education. In other words, the consolidated district 
is simply the single school district made large. It always in- 
volves the transportation of pupils from remote parts at public 
expense, either by car or wagon. 

In the agricultural areas of the United States and Canada 
the subject of transportation and consolidation has received 
much attention in recent years. It has been demonstrated 
that better school facilities can be provided in a central 
school at less expense, even with cost of transportation 
added. The union of several small schools permits the 
enlargement of classes and the employment of several teach- 
ers. Instruction can be effectively graded, and adjuncts, such 
as manual training, domestic art, and school library, can be 
developed. The safety and health of children are better se- 
cured through transportation to a distance than in the case 
of the shorter walks to isolated schools. Better teachers can 
be procured, owing to the relief from isolation. If the larger 
district is governed by a small board, more progressive and 
intelligent men can be procured from the larger area. Expert 
supervision is also facilitated by the centralizing of the small 
school. 

As a movement affecting the thickly settled agricultural 
areas, consolidation offers a considerable solution of the prob- 
lem of rural education. But naturally it is practicable only 
in certain sections of the country. In the mountainous areas 
of the South and West, where settlements cluster in small 
valleys, separated by wide unsettled regions, transportation is 
impracticable, and it will be necessary to make the most of 
the small school of many grades taught by a single teacher. 



Local Units of Educational Administration 95 



REFERENCES 

Dexter, E. G. History of Education in the United States. New York, 
1904. — Draper, A. S. Educational Organization and Administration, in 
Butler, Education in the United States. — Draper, A. S. The Supervision 
of Country Schools. Syracuse, 1904. — Evans, L. B. The County Unit 
in Educational Organization, Ed. Rev. 11:369. — Fairlie, J. A. Local 
Government in Counties, Towns, and Villages. New York, 1906. — Fellow, 
Henry C. A Study of School Supervision and Maintenance. Topeka, 
1896. — Harris, W. T. Elementary Education, in Butler, Education in 
the United States. Albany, 1900. — Holcomb, J. W. The County Super- 
intendent, Proc. N. E. A. 1885 : 162. — McDonald, J. A. The Independent 
District System. N. E. A. 1891 : 211. — McElroy, E. B. County Super- 
intendents, their Relations and Duties to Teachers, Proc. N. E. A. 
1886:337. — Martin, George H. Evolution of the Massachusetts PubHc 
School System. New York, 1894. — Prince, J. T. School Administration. 
Syracuse, 1906. The Social Unit in the Public School Systems of the 
United States, C.R. 1895 : 1457-1469. Comparative Cost of Township 
and District Systems, Rep. of the N. E. A. Com. of Twelve, 133. Discus- 
sion of Current Educational Questions, Township System, C. R. 
1891 : 1076-1079. 

Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science : — 

Bemis, E. W. Local Government in Michigan and the Northwest. 

Bemis, E. W. Local Government in the South and Southwest. 

Gould, E. R. L. Local Government in Pennsylvania. 

Macy, Jesse. Institutional Beginnings of a Western State. 

Ramage, B. J. Local Government and Free Schools in South Carolina. 

Shaw, Albert. Local Government in Illinois. 



CHAPTER VII 

Problems growing out of State and Local Adminis- 
tration OF Education 

Because the educational administration of the various 
American states is largely indigenous, it still retains a tenta- 
tive and experimental character. In almost none do we find 
general agreement on questions of local and state organiza- 
tion, or on distribution and development of functions. Every- 
where are numerous active tendencies, and many questions 
are felt to be quite unsettled ; but these are receiving the 
attention of a variety of students. In all the states is found 
an almost constant division of opinion among those represent- 
ing certain large social or political principles. The inertia 
of conservatism is resisting progressive or radical tendencies. 
Advocates of measures apparently productive of immediate 
efficiency are challenged by those who are unwilling to 
sacrifice certain traditional principles of American govern- 
ment, like those of local control by popular meeting, popular 
election of administrative officials, and freedom from detailed 
prescriptive legislation. 

Administrative Problems. — Again, because of the local 
and popular character of school control, and because of the 
great difficulty of carrying on experimental work in this field, 
administrative practice tends to lag far behind the best of 
educational theory. Students and experts are able to point 
out the weaknesses of current forms of administration many 
years before it can be hoped that improvement will be 
possible. To a very considerable extent, also, progress in 
educational administration is dependent upon developments 
in other fields of political and social activity. There are 
large problems of taxation connected with the support of 
public schools, but these must wait the solution of general 
problems of taxation by the state. It makes a great dif- 

96 



Administrative Problems 97 

ference in educational management whether officials shall be 
appointed or elected ; whether they shall hold office for long 
or short terms ; and whether boards shall be large or small. 
But these questions affect many other departments of ad- 
ministration besides that of schools ; and progress in the 
educational field must wait on far-reaching changes in public 
opinion with regard to the general principles underlying 
these special forms of political practice. 

Among the problems of active interest in most states in 
the matter of educational administration are especially these : 
id) the centralization of administrative functions ; ib) the 
determination of the most effective areas of local administra- 
tion, according to type of education under consideration ; 
ic) the most effective distributions of functions between lay 
and ex-officio administrators, on the one hand, and experts, on 
the other ; id) supervision of instruction in non-urban areas ; 
{e) and the development of new agencies of control for new 
types of educational activity. Problems of finance also enter 
here, but will be considered in a subsequent chapter. 

I. CENTRALIZATION 

Centralization in educational and other forms of admin- 
istration means roughly the removal of authority and re- 
sponsibility from local and popular sources to those more 
centralized and remote. In the affairs of education this 
centralization takes numerous easily recognizable forms. 
There is first the tendency to fix in state constitutions the 
details of direction and prohibition, so that these are removed 
from the control of the legislative bodies. In some states, 
especially those of the South and West, particular offices are 
created by the constitution, and in a few cases even term and 
salary are designated. Special types of schools, organization 
of state and county machinery of education, and specific 
designation of uses of funds, — these and similar matters 
tend to find their way into the constitution, and, as this is 
usually changed or mended with difficulty, popular control 
of such matters is made remote and ineffective. 



98 Educational Administration 

Control through State Legislation. — On a much larger 
scale is the tendency to have state legislation fix boundaries, 
sometimes very close, on the action of administrators. Laws 
determining the maximum and minimum amounts that may 
be raised by tax levies, the qualifications of officers to be 
elected or appointed, minimum or other salaries that may be 
paid to teachers and other members of staffs, details of 
course of study, the amount of money that may be spent on 
institutes, the terms for which teachers may be elected, the 
powers of boards to remove teachers, and many others illus- 
trate this tendency, which is by no means a new one even in 
American state administration. 

Transfer of Powers. — Another phase of the centralizing 
tendency is found in the transfer from local to county or 
state bodies of certain administrative powers. The with- 
drawal from district and township boards of the authority to 
examine teachers, to select text-books, to provide a course of 
study, to graduate pupils, to select school supplies, and to 
determine types of school buildings, illustrate this tendency, 
since in each case these powers are transferred to official 
bodies very much less accessible to the people. The use of 
the literary fund in loans for building purposes has given the 
state of Virginia some control of the plans for building, and 
the state superintendent recommends that this control be in- 
creased. The same tendency is exhibited in another form in 
the establishment of larger units of administration. When 
the township replaces the district in the exercise of all or 
many functions of administration, and the county grows in 
authority at the expense of the township, the annual town or 
district meeting becomes of less and less importance and 
administrative officials become less immediately responsible 
to the citizens who have given them office. 

Appointment instead of Election. — Centralization of ad- 
ministration is also brought about through the development 
of , appointive instead of elective office. In most states 
members of state boards are appointed, but state superintend- 
ents and county superintendents less frequently so. Boards 
for special fields of administration in connection with certi- 



Administrative Problems 99 

fication of teacher, selection of text-books, control of teachers' 
institutes, and government of special types of educational 
institution are frequently appointed. In some states the 
County Superintendent has considerable powers of nominat- 
ing trustees either directly or in case of default of local elec- 
tion. Because of expert training increasingly required in 
offices like that of County Superintendent of Schools, there 
is usually a persistent demand that the office should generally 
be an appointive one, as it already is in several states. 

Size of Boards. — Still another centralizing tendency is 
found to affect the size of boards. In cities the movement 
to reduce the number of lay officials has been extensive and 
effective. Within the state boards commissions are desig- 
nated for special purposes. This is in effect a reduction in 
the size of the board. The example of Indiana, with one 
trustee for the township and one director for each school, is 
an extreme case of centralization. 

Decentralization. — It has been noted ^ that up to the time 
of the Civil War there had been strong decentralizing ten- 
dencies in local government. Especially was this so in the 
direction of increasing the number of elective instead of ap- 
pointive offices. The basis of the suffrage had also been 
steadily extended. But the inclusion of the negro vote in 
the South provoked strong centralizing tendencies there after 
the Civil War ; while in nearly all other states the develop- 
ment of state supervision has had a centralizing effect. At 
the present time it seems to be true that centralization of 
educational administration is making considerable progress 
in all the states, when its various aspects are considered, 
and that everywhere there are strong forces making for 
further removal of authority from local communities and 
popular assemblages. 

Reasons for Centralization. — The motives for centralization 
in educational administration are various, sometimes spring- 
ing from the needs of immediate localities, sometimes express- 
ing the wider civic sense of the state. In most movements of 
this kind may be detected an increasing appreciation of the 

1 Fairlie, Local Government, p. 46. 



lOO Educational Administration 

general responsibility of the public for the educational effi- 
ciency of the state and its members. Parents may not neglect 
the education of their children, but neither may local groups 
of people. Hence legislation imposing requirements looking 
to maintaining schools of a prescribed degree of efficiency ; 
hence minimum salary laws designed to prevent communities 
from demoralizing the teaching profession by giving it over 
to incompetents ; hence the development of various types of 
inspection. In the states where large sums of money are 
given to the support of education by the state, it becomes in- 
evitable that a considerable degree of inspection and control 
should be exercised by pubHc authorities. 

Administrative Efficiency. — Underlying all centralizing 
measures, however, is the general tendency to seek by this 
means efficiency of management. Local and popular super- 
vision have proven effective within certain limits, but as the 
demands of education increase, as the teaching art becomes 
more complex, and as the scope of educational effort widens, 
there result numerous demands for effectiveness which can- 
not, it is believed, be obtained through the old channels of 
large local responsibility. It is expected that centralized 
action will result in increased efficiency along these lines : — 

a. Unification. — The first is in the direction of unification. 
State or county uniformity in text-books, in courses of study, 
in standards of school supplies, and in types of schools pre- 
vents large waste. Children moved from district to district 
under a system of district independence in these matters find 
schools so unlike that readjustment becomes difficult and 
wasteful. Teachers who shift from one county to another 
find it necessary, at considerable expense, to submit to reex- 
amination. The cost price of supplies and texts must neces- 
sarily be greater where retailers are obliged to keep varied 
kinds with chances against selling all of any one. The cen- 
tral administration of secondary schools, industrial schools, 
and other types of special educational institution has un- 
doubtedly resulted in preventing duplication of effort and the 
founding of institutions too small and weak to ever have 
more than a precarious existence. In other directions the 



Administrative Problems i o i 

production of uniformity in and of itself may be shown to 
be, at least temporarily, effective in the sense of producing 
greater economy. 

b. Expert Service. — The second source of effectiveness 
in centralized administration is the introduction of expert ser- 
vice and trained leadership. The examination of teachers by 
district trustees obviously did not involve a careful discrimina- 
tion as to their educational qualifications. Similarly, exami- 
nation by a county superintendent, popularly elected, while 
more effective than the former, still left much to be desired. 
So there results the gradual tendency to transfer this 
authority to county or state boards where provision can be 
made for the introduction of expert service. In the selection 
of text-books and supplies there is extensive opportunity for 
the introduction of experience and training. The discrimi- 
nation of the best in these lines is a matter for the expert, 
but he can only be made available in large areas. Hence 
the tendency to transfer the selection to county or, in many 
states, to state commissions or boards. Again, the framing 
of a course of study for modern educational conditions would 
appear to involve a large amount of professional skill, which 
can best be commanded in the centres of large areas. So 
we find states providing a detailed course of study for all 
but city schools. In some we find the course of study for 
secondary schools prescribed by law or fixed by a state com- 
mittee or, in effect, by a State University. Another feature 
of school administration making peculiar demands on expert 
service is the conduct of institutes. Left to the township or 
other local division, there can be little guarantee that these 
will succeed. But centralized under county or, better, state 
management, it becomes possible to develop a trained staff 
of officials to conduct them and thus to reahze the maxi- 
mum of efficiency. A considerable degree of centraliza- 
tion in financial administration of schools has come about 
through the necessity of having state boards assume 
charge of the investment of public funds derived from 
the sale of lands, rather than to leave this to relatively ineffi- 
cient local authorities. In city school administration there 



I02 Educational Administration 

has been a tendency in recent years to transfer to the super- 
intendent of schools, a carefully chosen expert, the impor- 
tant function of selecting and assigning teachers, a recogni- 
tion of the fact that popularly elected bodies of laymen may 
not, except within low limits, be able to bring to this matter 
the necessary experience and knowledge of local conditions. 
In the erection of school buildings there is an extensive 
opportunity for the appUcation of scientific principles which 
can only be made by a man with special training, and it is 
the hope of those interested in the matter that, through giv- 
ing county or state authorities a certain amount of jurisdiction, 
the services of the expert can finally be made indispensable. 
A similar condition is found with regard to medical inspection 
of schools and school children ; until some central authority 
is created, it will be impossible to have widespread efficiency 
along this line. 

" It is true that important modifications of local government are now 
taking place throughout the nation. The concentration of wealth and 
population in our larger cities, the long-continued depression of agriculture, 
and the consequent abandonment of farming by large numbers of country- 
bred youth, are bringing about certain readjustments of functions between 
state and township administration. It is easy for the state to raise money, 
increasingly difficult for the rural town. Consequently we see a disposition 
to throw upon the state governments a part of the burden of maintaining 
the roads and bridges, of supporting schools, and of caring for the insane 
and other defective persons. With this transfer of financial responsibility 
goes, of course, a transfer of administrative regulation. And even in the 
cities the abuses of popular power have, in some instances, led to a transfer 
of authority from municipal to state governments ; as for example, in 
cities like Boston, which no longer elect their mayors, or appoint their 
police commissioners, but accept them at the hand of the Governor of the 
Commonwealth." ^ 

Aggrandizing Tendencies. — Another cause of centraliza- 
tion is found in the desire and tendency of official bodies to 
enlarge and perpetuate their functions, especially when they 
are opposed to popular or ex-officio bodies without expert 
leadership. In this way the power of state inspectors, county 
superintendents, city superintendents, text-book commissions, 

^ Giddings, Democracy and Empire, p. 299. 



Adininistrative Problems 103 

state institute conductors, state examining boards, and legis- 
latures tend to grow. Laws regulating the performance of 
duties by local bodies are often called forth by the negligence 
or incompetence of a few such bodies, but the resulting law 
is general in its effects. The power of county superintend- 
ents, and especially of state superintendents, in deciding 
appeals and controverted questions is also great. When 
new educational issues are before the people on matters that 
have not yet crystallized into legislation, the potential au- 
thority of a strong personality in an executive position is 
not small. Sometimes this building up of autocratic powers 
in expert boards and offices may prove a distinct abuse and 
social menace ; but, on the whole, owing to the responsive- 
ness of the legislature to well-defined public sentiment, it 
is usually possible to check unfavorable tendencies. The 
exceptional case is found where vested financial interests 
are at stake. Here, as may be illustrated in some cases of 
state text-book systems, the influences that can be brought 
to bear to check any movement in the legislature against 
intrenched official bodies may prove too strong for public 
opinion.^ 

Reasons against Centralization. — The opposition to cen- 
tralization of administration has, at bottom, likewise several 
motives. Not only have all centralizing measures had to 
fight their way during the last half century, but at times 
distinct steps toward decentralization have been in evidence, 

1 Another form of centralization is found in state management of certain types 
of education, universities, normal schools, industrial schools, etc. But it is also note- 
worthy that in states like New York, Minnesota, Wisconsin, North Dakota, and 
others where state aid is given to secondary schools, conditions are imposed 
which partake of the nature of partial control. Still more significant is the 
extension of this form of control in Wisconsin and Minnesota, where state graded 
schools are found, receiving a grant from the state on condition of maintaining 
specified standards. In his report for 1906 the State Superintendent of North 
Dakota proposes that the state should give aid to rural schools, but only to those 
{a) having an eight months' term, {b) a certificated teacher of the first class, (<r) 
proper equipment of buildings and appliances, and (i/) a sufficient library. For 
a graded school the grant should be larger and the conditions more exacting. 
The possibilities of this form of central control are evidently very extensive 
where state aid is given. 



I04 Educational Administration 

like the rise of the district, with its powers of independent 
taxation in certain Southern states, the enlargement of the 
powers of municipalities, and the discontinuance of state 
systems of text-books in at least two states (Minnesota and 
North Carolina). The fundamental motive in opposition to 
centralizing tendencies is found in the inherited unwilling- 
ness of the people to surrender governmental functions 
which they think they can themselves exercise. Very slowly, 
indeed, does it become apparent to the average community 
that in matters like road building, the management of charity 
and relief, the administration of justice and the carrying on 
of public education, the district or the town meeting and its 
elected representatives are not equal to all ordinary demands. 
And even if a certain lack of competency be admitted, 
nevertheless there persists a vague feeling that it is somehow 
of importance to society that this local exercise of functions 
which are apt to be more economic than political, should be 
allowed to go on. 

The Fear of Bureaucracy is an almost instinctive aversion 
of the American people, and operates to resist central and 
official control. Even where there exists recognized com- 
petency in the official who is removed from the reach of 
popular suffrage, nevertheless the fact that he cannot be 
directly affected by public sentiment is a reason against the 
existence of such an office. Even where expert qualifications 
are manifestly demanded, — as, e.g., in those states which 
prescribe certain professional qualifications for the County 
Superintendent elected by popular vote, — nevertheless a 
definite term of office is fixed, and there is no guarantee 
that the trained official will be returned to his place at the 
expiration of his term. This traditional fear of the bureau- 
cracy with the disposition to require a man to meet popular 
approval, and to hold over him the threat of dismissal from 
office as a penalty for failure to satisfy public demands, con- 
stitutes, undoubtedly, one of the strongest influences operat- 
ing to check the centralizing process. 

Results of Centralization. — At the present time it is ex- 
tremely difficult to pass judgment on the political and social 



Administrative Problems 105 

wisdom of the process of centralization of government as it 
affects education. This is partly true because of the funda- 
mental fact that, at any given time, a further centralization of 
administration does, undoubtedly, for a period tend to develop 
the socially valuable qualities noted above. Any step from 
a decentralized system of administration to a more centralized 
one, whether by legislation prescribing details of administra- 
tive procedure or promoting unification, or by the transference 
to appointive and relatively expert officials of functions hith- 
erto exercised by popularly elected and inexpert officials, or 
by the enlargement of areas of administrative action, must for 
a time almost inevitably produce good results, since the newer 
forms of administration are able to use a large capital — of 
energy and habit — from the preceding. On the other hand, 
the evils which are commonly associated with the idea of cen- 
tralized administration are matters of slow growth. Where 
control is largely removed from the district meeting, interest 
does not all at once flag, but declines insensibly. Officials 
appointed to important posts do not immediately develop 
bureaucratic tendencies, but only slowly do official traditions 
become such as to interfere with progress. In other words, 
changes in administration in the direction of concentration 
act like stimulants ; they draw largely on reserves of power 
already existing, but it may be that in the long run they fail 
to create power in their turn. 

Local Control and Popular Interest. — It is unquestionably 
true that popular interest in educational administration is, to 
some extent, associated with the feeling that there is also in- 
volved for its effectiveness control of the agencies at work. 
It may be, for example, that the town or district meeting, 
with its power to raise or refuse to raise money, to select text- 
books, to decide on the length of the school year, and its po- 
tential power to choose the teaching force has produced a 
degree of cooperation of parents with the school which will, in 
the long run, be difficult to realize in any other way. The 
powers of local teachers to affect the course of study, the pur- 
chase of supplies, the selection of text-books, and the gradu- 
ation of pupils contribute a valuable fund of local interest 



io6 Educational Administration 

which a more centralized performance of these functions 
might fail to elicit. The difficulty with centralized adminis- 
tration is that it tends to discourage local interest and effort 
in the same way that certain forms of unwise teaching dis- 
courage individual effort on the part of the student. And 
education in a democratic society is peculiarly in need of a 
large measure of this friendly appreciation and cooperation. 
While changing economic conditions make inevitable a con- 
siderable removal of local autonomy, it may well be doubted 
whether an apparent increase in general efficiency should in- 
duce the state to permit the sacrifice of popular local interest 
which centralizing measures of a certain kind may entail. 

The experience of the various states would seem to indicate 
that the following principles might be valid in the process of 
determining to what extent centralization of functions should 
take place. 

a. Division of Ftinctions. — A careful distinction should be 
made between experts who are expected to represent special 
training in the interest of effective administration, and other 
persons of general intelligence who are supposed to express 
popular demands and standards. The former are salaried, 
the latter not salaried, or ex officio. Laws should provide the 
former with large powers of initiation, recommendation, and 
action ; the latter with large powers of inspection, veto, and 
suggestion. This division of functions is now found in city 
school administration in the best cities. The principle is re- 
versed in the states where county and state superintendents 
are elected, and boards appointed. It is also reversed where 
township or district boards assume large powers of initiative 
and administration which should require the expert. Where 
special commissions or boards are required, as for certification 
of teachers, selection of text-books, decision as to district 
boundaries, formulation of courses of study, and the like, the 
same principle should hold — the commission or board should 
be empowered to work through expert agents who have large 
powers of recommendation and publicity, the board or com- 
mission retaining powers of veto and approval. The non- 
salaried board may be popularly elected, or be appointed by 



Administrative Problems 107 

the Governor or some other official who is immediately respon- 
sible to the people. 

b. Central Control General. — Laws passed by the legis- 
lature, and also measures of legal force emanating from cen- 
tral bodies, should be general, should set maximum and 
minimum standards, but should allow large measures of local 
adaptation and flexibility. In this way the state preserves the 
general educational welfare, but allows scope for individual 
variation. Thus, minimum salary laws are justifiable, but not 
laws fixing salary schedules in detail. Laws fixing a minimum 
rate of local taxation are wise, as also those fixing a sufifi- 
ciently high maximum, but there should be large opportunity 
for range between. The selection of text-books by state com- 
mission may be good policy, but either through the device of 
lists of several books in each subject from which local boards 
may select, or through the possibility of having local author- 
ity adopt other than the prescribed list on approval from above, 
there should be opportunity for flexibility. A state or even a 
city course of study should be in the nature of a minimum, or 
be stated in general terms ; or should, like the text-book list, 
indicate desirable alternatives, which local schools might 
adopt. State or county examinations of pupils are desirable 
only when they can be so framed as to admit of large flexi- 
bility. By accrediting schools which have met certain general 
standards, or by use of a wide range of alternative questions 
in examinations, something can be done for local adaptation. 
The accrediting of types of educational institutions whose di- 
plomas shall be recognized by local bodies, and the provision 
of additional examining bodies, may introduce the sufficient 
local control into the general matter of the certification of 
teachers. And, similarly, in other fields where legislation 
tends to become prescriptive and narrow. 

c. Central Approval and Veto. — In the relation of the 
larger to the smaller unit of administration, as state to county 
and town, or county with reference to township and district, 
it would seem desirable to leave to the local unit relatively 
great administrative control and liberty, subject to large pub- 
licity and approval from above. For example, in some South- 



io8 Educational Administration 

ern states district officers select teachers subject to approval 
of county authorities. The educational budget of a local 
community, instead of being fixed from above, might well be 
determined locally, to be approved by higher authorities. In 
systems where there is no state or county uniformity of 
text-books, it might be well within the bounds of wise centraliza- 
tion to have local selections subject to veto by higher authori- 
ties, as a state commission. In England each school in a city 
system prepares what is practically its own course of study, 
subject to certain general conditions imposed from the central 
authority, but this scheme must be approved by the city com- 
mittee before it is effective. Similarly, to allow local authori- 
ties to provide working plans of buildings, to be effective only 
when approved by some central expert authority, would allow 
a suitable division of functions and enough of local inde- 
pendence. It has been pretty well demonstrated in state 
supervision of charitable and penal work that inspection or 
supervision by a state body vested with large powers of recom- 
mendation and publicity, but with little or no direct control, is, 
in the long run, the means which best combines the preserva- 
tion of local independence and interest with the gradual 
imposition of higher standards. No doubt, in educational ad- 
ministration this will be difficult to bring about, because of the 
impatience felt regarding the immediate achievement of re- 
sults. But, in the long run, the supervisory power and indirect 
educational value of a state system like that of Massachusetts 
seems to be productive of the highest amount of good. The 
process is slow, but it seems to succeed in carrying the people 
with it. It will be at times hard for those keenest for effi- 
ciency in administration to realize that American education is 
essentially democratic and should not be too greatly detached 
from the people. 

2. VARYING CONCEPTIONS OF SUPERVISION 

Supervision of Instruction. — It has been said that the 
problems connected with centralization in education involve 
also, to a considerable extent, problems of supervision. 



Administrative Problems 109 

Supervision, as the term is now applied, involves many things. 
We speak of the state supervision exercised by the Superin- 
tendent and the State Board of Education ; of county super- 
vision by county superintendent and sometimes by county 
boards ; and of local supervision by township or district 
boards or committees. All of the oversight thus exercised 
acts in the direction of regularizing school administration 
and in setting standards of attainment. The State Superin- 
tendent's office can supervise the expenditure of money ; 
the County Superintendent can supervise the work of local 
boards in a general way, and, by visiting schools annually or 
semiannually, he can determine whether work of a certain 
standard is being done. But all of the supervision thus far 
described acts only to a slight extent as supervision of instruc- 
tion, and should more properly be called inspection. Even 
where special branches of inspection are developed, as in the 
case of the Wisconsin inspector of rural schools 1 or in states 
like Minnesota, where a state inspector of secondary schools 
exists, it is impossible to say that the actual instruction given 
in the schools is supervised in any truly educational sense. 
A somewhat nearer approach is made where systems of 
final examination have developed. For many years the 
county boards of education in California have held written 
examinations for promotion in the upper grades, and for 
graduation. New York has, by its systems of Regents 
examinations, for many years exercised a considerable amount 
of direct supervision over secondary instruction in that state. 
But supervision of this sort consists mainly in passing judg- 
ment on work after it is done, and the main recourse for those 
having to correct deficiencies is to dismiss teachers who have 
not reached expectations. Outside of cities it is generally 
true that the only inspection of instruction available, whether 
by district committees, county superintendents, or systems 
of examination is crude, inexpert, often illogical, and gen- 
erally quite lacking in constructive features. 

Municipal Supervision. — Within all municipalities we have 
at least the machinery of effective supervision of instruction. 
^ The office was created by law of 1905. 



no Educational Administration 

Over each group of teachers ranging in number from ten to 
twenty-five is a principal who, except in small schools, does 
not have regular charge of a class, and who is at liberty to 
spend much of his time not only in the general administration 
of his school, but in the work of detailed and constructive 
supervision. In practically all cities we find over the princi- 
pals a superintendent, who coordinates the work for the entire 
system. In a few cases particular forms of supervision have 
developed, which represent a certain specialization in that 
department, as where kindergartens, primary grades, high 
schools, manual training branches, music, drawing, and other 
studies have trained and experienced supervisors who supple- 
ment the work of the principal in expert supervision. 

Rural Supervision. — In a few states there has developed 
township supervision, which is analogous to city supervision in 
that it deliberately aims at the close oversight of instruction. 
In Massachusetts such supervision is now compulsory through- 
out the state, though for many years it was only permissive. In 
Connecticut the appointment of superintendents for towns or 
for combined towns having from twenty-five to fifty teachers 
is permissive, and, as in the case of Massachusetts, the state 
bears a large proportion of the expense of employing such 
superintendents. In New Hampshire and some other New 
England states the formation of local supervision districts is 
permissive. 

But, generally speaking, non-urban education in the United 
States is not subject to the kind of expert supervision now 
under discussion. Even where counties are small, the inspec- 
tion made by county superintendents or members of county 
boards is quite inadequate for a number of reasons. In a 
subsequent chapter on supervision will be found a discussion 
of the qualities involved in constructive supervision of in- 
struction. Here let it suffice to indicate that in the estimation 
of all educators the kind of supervision which can be exer- 
cised by non-expert members of local boards, good as it is in 
its sphere, is utterly inadequate to meet modern standards ; 
while the clerical and general administrative duties of county 
superintendents, as well as their frequent lack of preparation 



Administrative Problems 1 1 1 

for this work, make it impossible to expect from this quarter 
the evolution of expert supervision. 

And yet it is probable that the advancement of non-urban 
education is in its present stage of development more depend- 
ent on just this expert supervision of instruction than on any- 
other agency. Education under rural and village conditions is 
characterized by a shifting body of teachers, frequent changes 
in control, large classes and many grades, imperfect accom- 
modations, an excessive influence of the home and local public 
opinion on the work of the teacher, and the development of nu- 
merous minor misunderstandings. The better-trained teachers 
are not available for rural schools, and yet it is in a rural 
school, even had they the best teachers, that the necessity for 
sympathetic and constructive supervision and cooperation is 
most felt. But, while the need is frequently acknowledged, 
the difficulties in the way of providing this supervision have 
hitherto, except in a very few states, entirely precluded its 
development. These are found in the matter of developing a 
suitable area of supervision, in meeting the necessary expense, 
and in providing the agencies for the selection of the super- 
visor of instruction. To these must be added the failure of 
many states to recognize the need of expert supervision, and 
the belief that county inspection is adequate. 

Area of Supervision. — In the matter of area it is eco- 
nomically desirable that the supervisor should have at least 
fifteen or twenty teachers under him, while any number 
beyond thirty or forty is excessive. Again, the area should 
be such that, except in very sparsely populated regions, no 
school should be beyond a day's journey from the centre of 
the supervision district. The county division is almost 
always too large, the district, consolidated district, and even 
township frequently too small. Since, from the standpoint 
of administration by lay boards, it is undesirable to have dis- 
tricts too large, it is probable that the safest expedient is to 
be found in the practice, before alluded to, found in certain 
New England states, of having unions of townships for 
purposes of supervision and of compelling each town to enter 
into some supervision union. 



112 Educational Administration 

Support of Supervision. — Again, in the matter of expense, 
while such supervision is from any standpoint of educational 
theory a legitimate charge upon the communities involved, there 
are good reasons for believing that the expedients found in Mas- 
sachusetts and Connecticut of having the state bear a large 
share of the salary of the expert supervisor will prove in the 
long run advantageous. The supervision thus exercised may 
be looked upon as an extension of the work of the state and in 
a sense its benefits flow out to the state at large even more 
than does the work of the individual teacher. 

The Selection of the Supervisor offers the same difficulties 
as does the matter of determining areas of supervision. Evi- 
dently more than one local board must be taken into account. 
Various schemes have been proposed to meet this need. It 
has been suggested that the supervisors should be deputies of 
the County Superintendent, appointed by him. The undesir- 
ability of this in all cases where the county superintendency 
is an elective office should be apparent. On the other hand, 
election by committees of local boards is open to some objec- 
tion, although in all cities, even where the nomination of 
teachers has been surrendered by the boards of education, the 
latter is still responsible for the election of the City Superin- 
tendent. It is entirely probable that a scheme could be 
worked out, whereby the County Superintendent might nomi- 
nate to a committee of local boards one or more suitable per- 
sons, the committee retaining the right to reject nominations 
for suitable reasons.^ As before indicated, some such method 
would most effectively meet the demands for expertness, on 
the one hand, and responsiveness to local sentiment, on the 
other. 

It can hardly be doubted that the problem of expert super- 
vision for non-urban schools is to-day the central one in 
which rural education is concerned. Consolidation in coun- 

1 Undoubtedly this involves the idea of certification for these experts, as is 
now the case in Connecticut. Practical experience, a considerable academic 
education, and a specified amount of professional training are all indispensable. 
See Cubberley, "The Certification of Teachers," Fifth Year Book of the National 
Society for the Scientific Study of Education, pp. 84-86. 



Administrative Problems 113 

try districts will make it possible to have several teachers in 
one school ; but this, even one where one is designated as 
head or principal, does not mean expert supervision. Not 
until each county can present a body of trained men and 
women, devoted to local supervision in the best sense of that 
word, will it be possible for considerable advance to be made 
in the matter of systems of grading, courses of study, special 
studies for rural districts, the increase of salaries for teachers, 
and the development of a teaching profession for country 
schools.^ 

3. THE AREA OF LOCAL ADMINISTRATION 

The problem of the most suitable area for local administra- 
tion is complicated by the modern demand for different types 
of education and for supervision. An area most effective for 
elementary education would probably not be conterminous 
with a suitable district for secondary institutions, while the 
industrial and agricultural schools, which are more and 
more being demanded, even in rural sections, will require 
special areas of their own. Formerly, when the establish- 
ment of high schools was left to the will of the locality, 
there were always large areas of the state that were outside 
of any high school district ; but in recent times the tendency 
is to compel all areas to come within the hmits of some high 
school district. Similarly, it is conceivable that as special 

1 The law of Ohio (1906) makes expert supervision mandatory in cities, and 
permits it in districts, but the State Superintendent thinks townships should be 
obliged to provide it, as many as four townships coming together for this. The 
supervisor would then have as many teachers under his direction as in our smaller 
cities. " He would be the executive officer of the boards of education, advising 
them as to a course of study that would be in harmony with the laws of the state, 
and best suited to the needs of the district. He would see that the course adopted 
was carried out in the schools. Teachers' meetings under his leadership should be 
held in each district, with perhaps an occasional joint meeting. His counsel and 
experience would be invaluable to the young and inexperienced teacher. The 
right man in such a position would be very helpful to boards of education and an 
inspiration to teachers and pupils. He would be able to create a favorable pub- 
lic sentiment, and to exert an influence in the community that would serve to 
bring into much closer and happier relations the home and the school. This 
form of supervision should be made mandatory," — State Report, 1906. 
I 



114 Educational Administration 

industrial and agricultural schools are founded, ultimately all 
parts of the state will be found within their districts.^ In the 
preceding section it was shown that in at least one state 
(Massachusetts) every township is now obliged to be a mem- 
ber of a supervision district. 

Present Tendencies. — The history of the district system 
in the United States shows that in certain stages of the de- 
velopment of settlements this type of unit is the necessary 
form of school organization. In cities and in thickly settled 
rural communities, the district tends to give way to a larger 
area, as the town, incorporated city, or consolidated district. 
Probably where township government is strongly intrenched, 
the town will grow in importance as the area of local admin- 
istration, just as the single unit of city administration has 
tended to replace the district or ward system. But in the 
South and West where the county unit is strong and the 
township or precinct weak, there is no evidence that the dis- 
trict will diminish in importance, except that in populous areas 
where transportation is feasible, the consolidated district, 
which will not be unlike the government township in area, 
will replace the isolated one. But in any case it must be 
observed that the district of the sparsely settled South and 
West is relatively large, commonly exceeding twenty square 
miles. This, of course, is for elementary education. The 
establishment of secondary schools demands the combination 
of districts, as it may involve the combination of townships 
and even the transportation of pupils. For the management 
of these schools, so far as lay boards are concerned, the most 
effective means will undoubtedly be found in the composition 

1 The State Superintendent of Virginia in his 1907 report recommends " that 
the Assembly add to the present act a feature permitting the State Board of 
Education, under proper restrictions, to estabUsh in not exceeding six of the pub- 
lic high schools, agricultural education, manual training, and domestic economy. 
These subjects should be introduced in only a few schools at the start, in order 
that the work may be carefully supervised and nurtured. When they have once 
taken root in our educational soil, and have demonstrated their great possibilities 
for usefulness, it will need no argument to convince the people of the state of the 
benefits to accrue from a rapid introduction of these schools in every county in 
the state." 



Administrative Problems 115 

of boards from existing district boards, since special elections 
for the larger districts can hardly prove practicable. In many 
states the centralization of functions already accomplished is 
sufficient to prevent the utter neglect and inefficiency which 
characterized the old-time districts. The district system has 
found its deepest degradation in those states where the local- 
ity must assume almost entire responsibility for school sup- 
port. Where the state has imposed by law a minimum 
contribution to be made by the locality, or itself contributes 
extensively to the support of school, the inefficient district is 
not found ; while the removal of the right of certification from 
local boards, and the development of county and state inspec- 
tion, has prevented many evils which might otherwise attach 
themselves to local self-government. It seems probable that 
local administration of elementary education, in non-urban 
areas, will perpetuate that form of district which will enable 
the various members of the community to know each other 
and the school officials whom they elect to represent them. 
The school meeting may be, as some authorities assert, a 
vanishing form of control ; but the annual election at which 
large questions of sites of schools, rate of local taxation, bond 
issue, etc., are passed upon and officials elected to carry out 
the will of the people, will undoubtedly resist centralizing ten- 
dencies. The peculiar character of city populations, of course, 
makes impracticable so great a development of democratic 
control there, and it must be pointed out that many au- 
thorities believe that, in the long run, the system of the 
county unit of school government, which resembles city con- 
trol in its detachment from immediate popular government, 
represents the system which will give a maximum of educa- 
tional efficiency. 

4. DIVISION OF FUNCTIONS BETWEEN LAY AND EXPERT 
OFFICIALS 

It has already been noted that the progress of centraliza- 
tion has tended to increase the powers of experts not only in 
educational but in all other fields of public administration 



ii6 Educational Administration 

It has been shown that American education does not yet, to 
any sufficient degree, devolve powers and responsibilities on 
experts. There exists a certain permanent opposition be- 
tween direction and control of activity, on the one hand, by 
specialists, salaried and permanent in office, and, on the other, 
by boards and officials elected by popular vote and represent- 
ing the average of public wisdom and the prevailing fashion 
in public sentiment. And yet it cannot be doubted that, 
under a democracy, both forms of control are necessary. 
There enter into educational administration questions of pub- 
lic policy and expressions of public demand which can only 
be conveyed and expressed by the layman, acting in represent- 
ative capacity. On the other hand, there appear constantly 
problems of direction and management for which the layman 
is quite unsuited, and for which, in the long run, only the 
expert trained for this particular business can prove effective. 
Practical Examples. — It is very evident that in educational 
administration in the various American states the utmost con- 
fusion prevails at this point. There is no logical scheme of 
administration which provides at the proper point for division 
between lay and expert direction. In some of our best-gov- 
erned cities is found the nearest approach to correct principles. 
These place in the hands of special experts, either individuals 
or commissions, such matters as examination of teachers, 
choice of plans for buildings, formulation of courses of study, 
selection of text-books, grading and graduation of pupils, 
after-training of teachers, supervision of instruction ; while 
bodies representing the electorate select experts, hold the 
power of veto or approval over their action, approve of bud- 
gets or modify the same, fix salary schedules, and in general 
express popular approval or disapproval of courses of ad- 
ministration. The same division of functions is evident in 
Massachusetts where the Board of Education, appointed by 
the Governor, its membership changing gradually, is intended 
to represent public policy in general in regard to educational 
matters, but the execution of this policy in its details demand- 
ing expert control is left to the secretary and agents of the 
Board who hold office for indefinite terms and have every 



Administrative Problems wj 

incentive to become experts in their special fields. A popu- 
larly elected county board which appoints the Superintend- 
ent of Schools and gives him large powers of recommenda- 
tion and initiative conforms to this scheme. The elected or 
more often appointed board governing the university or other 
large institution, which delegates large powers of initiative and 
management to the executive officer or president, but reserves 
final jurisdiction, also exhibits the same idea; and when to 
this form of organization we add the inspection by a non- 
salaried state board with powers of publicity and recommen- 
dation, but none of direct authority, we seem to have a scheme 
which, in the long run (and this is a most important point in 
all schemes of democratic control), ought to give the most 
effective combination of expert service and popular control. 
The Basis of Differentiation of administrative functions should 
be into those, on the one hand, that require expert qualification 
and special training and those, on the other hand, that mainly 
indicate large matters of public policy, of public approval or 
disapproval. For the latter the appointed or elected board is 
desirable, provided the appointment come from some source 
which is directly responsible to the public ; for the former, 
appointment for a long or indefinite term, by the board, and, 
if possible, on formal recommendation of higher executive 
officers. This formal recommendation, even if not called for 
by law, is imposed by custom upon all boards which are 
truly interested in procuring efficient administration. The 
observance of this principle involves the gradual withdrawal 
from popularly elected or appointed bodies of powers of initia- 
tion in details, but the development of powers and responsi- 
bilities of final control and approval. It involves the idea of 
constantly selecting experts for the performance of adminis- 
trative functions, for initiating appointments, and for making 
recommendations as to further action. Medical inspection of 
schools and the preservation of the health of school children, 
construction and equipment of schoolhouses, appointment of 
teachers, development of new types of education, prepara- 
tion of effective statistical presentations, outlining of courses 
of study, selection of text-books, the ranking of teachers, 



ii8 Educational Administratio7t 

the development of means of training teachers, — all these 
and scores of other functions represent fields wherein 
the expert is indispensable, but where the expert him- 
self needs the support that comes from a lay board which first 
gives him appointment, procures him the means of work, and 
finally stands in a judicial capacity to determine, for the public, 
whether his efforts fulfil expectations. The application of 
this principle does not necessarily mean centralization, or the 
development of irresponsible bureaucracies. But it certainly 
does mean increase of efficiency, and it is, indeed, the only 
certain source of such efficiency. Its full application in 
American education would involve many changes in present 
schemes of administration.^ 



1 English Local Administration. — In the elaborate scheme of local ad- 
ministration provided by the bill of 1902 in England, a detailed plan of com- 
bining expert and lay functions in educational authorities was evolved. Prior to 
the introduction of this bill, educational administration had been in the hands of 
local boards, popularly elected, usually for larger areas than in the United States. 
In some cities these boards were excellent, but in rural districts, especially, their 
performance left much to be desired. The bill of 1902 abolished locally elected 
boards and gave educational management into the hands of the City or County 
Council, which is a large, popularly elected body for the purposes of local legisla- 
tion and administration, corresponding to our boards of supervisors or city 
councils. But the council acts as an educational authority directly only in the 
matter of finance. For other purposes of school administration it is obliged 
under the law to elect an education committee which must be composed partly 
of its own members, partly of leading representatives of educational interests 
in the area, and partly of educators. The scheme for the selection of these 
"coopted" members has to have the approval of the English authority on 
education (the National Board of Education) before it can become effective. 
In this way every English education committee is composed partly of members 
of the council, popularly elected and especially identified with the financial 
aspects of local administration, and partly of the leading representatives of local 
educational interests. These committees, sometimes one for various types of 
education, more commonly subdivided for the different kinds of administration, 
have agents, clerks, or other executive officers vs'ho in some measure, though in- 
adequately, correspond to the American city and county superintendent. The 
system is intricate, and, with the development of a recognized type of executive 
officer, might become very effective. Its complexity is due to some extent to the 
numerous types of combination necessary between public and private or semi- 
private education. 



Administrative Problems 119 



REFERENCES 

Blake, C. G. The Centralization of Schools, Fonim, 33 : 103. — Bowman, 
H. M. The Administration of Iowa. New York, 1903. — Cubberlsy, E. P. 
The Certification of Teachers. Fifth Year Book of Nat. Soc. for Scientific 
Study of Education. Chicago, 1907. — Cubberley, E. P. School Organization, 
Ed. Rev. 13 : 163. — Draper, A. S. The Supervision of Country Schools. 
Syracuse, 1904. — Fairlie, J. A. CentraHzing of Administration in New 
York. New York, 1898. — Fairlie, J. A. Local Government. New York, 1906. 

— Hinsdale, B. A. Some Sociological Factors in Rural Education in the 
United States, Proc. N. E. A. 1896 : 261 . (Also in his Studies in Education.) 

— Hoist, H. von. Nationalization of Education in the United States. Mon- 
ist, 3 : 493. — Hubbert, Harvey H. What Kind of Centralization, if any, will 
strengthen our Local School System? Proc N. E. A. 1898 : 986. — Lowell, 
A. Lawrence. The Professional and Non-professional Bodies in our Public 
School Systems and the Functions of Each, Proc. N. E. A. 1898 : 999. Mayo, 
Rev. A. D. Lessons from American Educational History. Proc. N. E. A. 
1898:223. — Orth, S. P. The Centralization of Administration in Ohio. 
New York, 1903. — Prince, John T. School Administration (Appendix 
B). Syracuse, 1906. — Rawles, W. A. Centralizing Tendencies in the 
Administration of Indiana. New York, 1903. — Thurber, C. H. Principles 
of School Organization. Worcester. — Webster, W. C. Recent Centraliz- 
ing Tendencies in State Educational Administration, Ed. Rev. 13: 23, 134. 
Also New York, 1897. Report of the Committee of Twelve (of the 
National Educational Association). Chicago, 1897. 



CHAPTER VIII 
City School Systems 

Evolution and Growth of Cities. — The city has been a 
prominent fact in the organization of human society. In 
ancient, mediaeval, and modern times large aggregations of 
people have dwelt together, and the social life of the people in 
a large and often congested community has been somewhat 
different from that of those scattered throughout the open 
country. In America we are rapidly coming to be a nation 
of cities. The century during which we have attained our 
growth as a nation has been especially favorable for the 
growth of urban communities. Labor-saving machinery has 
produced the factory, and the factory has often been proved 
to be the germ of a growing city. Never before in the world's 
history has immigration affected so distinctly the life of a 
people. As many of our immigrants have come from the 
cities of Europe, they have naturally sought homes in towns 
and cities of the New World where they could best follow the 
crafts and trades to which they had been accustomed. Add- 
ing to these factors of industry and immigration that of easy 
transportation, we have the chief causes of our urban devel- 
opment. 

What our cities shall be, how they shall be governed, to 
what degree they shall be independent and to what extent 
under the paternal care of the state, how far the municipality 
shall go in caring for the needs of the people, physical, in- 
tellectual, and social, are questions of practical importance 
considered from a broad educational point of view. As our 
cities have come to include nearly one-half of the entire pop- 
ulation, and as they constitute great centres of influence in 
respect of wealth, culture, and politics, it is evident that the 
problem of public education in our cities must become more 

1 20 



City School Systems 121 

and more vital to the welfare of the nation. The extent of 
the problem is best indicated by the following figures taken 
from the report of the Commissioner of Education for 1906. 

Numerical Growth of City System. — The number of school 
systems in cities of over 8000 people was given at the time of 
this report as 661, an increase of 6j over the previous year. 
The whole number of teachers employed is 106,000; the 
number of school buildings is 10,672, an increase in one 
year of 493. 

Or, taking cities and villages of 4000 inhabitants and over, 
the number of school systems is 1325 ; the whole number of 
teachers in public day schools in these urban communities is 
130,774. The enrolment of pupils in the schools is 5,441,213, 
which is 32 per cent of all pupils enrolled in public day schools 
in the country. 

Whether we take cities of the first class, 661 in number, or 
the number of urban communities of over 4000, numbering 
1325, we have a problem vast in its scope and import. The 
fact that the number of these cities is increasing nearly 100 
each year is significant, and suggests that future generations 
will see marvellous things in municipal development. 

Tardiness of Municipal Reform. — Dr. Albert Shaw begins 
his scholarly work on Mimicipal Government in Continental 
Europe by declaring that the distinctively modern city had 
its birth in the French Revolution, and that Paris has ever 
since then stood as its preeminent type. While recognizing 
that other great European cities have shown distinctive fea- 
tures in their organization and government, he holds that 
they have all been strongly influenced by the illustrations 
which Paris has given of the most thoroughgoing and 
complex organization. It is only within recent years that 
Americans have thought it necessary to study carefully 
the science of municipal government. And so the splendid 
examples which were to be seen and studied in Paris, 
Berlin, Vienna, and Budapest have been in a measure 
lost to us. Whether in the administration of public edu- 
cation, in the control of valuable franchises, in the organi- 
zation of public service in the interest of health and 



122 Educational Administration 

convenience, or in making provision for the higher educa- 
tion and culture of the community, we have pursued until 
recent years a haphazard course. That most fundamental 
of all principles in civil government, honesty and security 
in the civil service, has only just been adopted as a prin- 
ciple of city administration. Selfishness and corruption 
have been so current in many of our cities that good 
citizens have turned away in disgust and have withheld 
their active interest. Wherever school systems have been 
under the immediate control of the city government, their 
progress has often been retarded, the schools have been 
regarded with suspicion if not with contempt by many 
people, and the establishment of high professional standards 
has been well-nigh impossible. 

Relation of the City to the State. — The situation as regards 
city school administration to-day is certainly interesting, not 
to say promising. The relations of the state to the city 
and of the city to the state are gradually becoming defined, 
and it will not be long before certain fundamental princi- 
ples will be recognized ' in all legislation affecting city 
affairs. On the one hand, we have the idea, which is 
present in a greater or less degree in this country as well- 
as in Europe, that the city is an extension of the state 
government ; that the larger cities, particularly, constitute 
so much a part of the energy and life of the state that 
their affairs should be dominated by the legislature. As 
Paris is essentially France, as BerHn is expressive of the 
governmental power of Prussia, so New York City carries 
in its throbbing life the destinies and welfare of the state ; 
and in the same way Boston is typical of all that is best 
and most influential in the commonwealth. However much 
we may believe in home rule for cities, and however neces- 
sary it may be that American cities, as they have done in 
Europe, should have the opportunity of providing for the 
needs of their people without being thwarted and hampered 
by the central government, no one can deny that under ex- 
isting conditions the very salvation of our cities depends 
upon the ability of legislatures to enact such provisions as 



City School Systems 123 

will safeguard the rights of citizens, take the government 
from ignorant and irresponsible politicians, and place it in 
the hands of honest and competent experts. 

Recent Charter Provisions. — We have most impressive 
evidence of the validity of this principle in the results of 
recent charter provisions for cities as affecting the adminis- 
tration of public schools. Let any one compare the condi- 
tions as they existed a few years ago in New York, Rochester, 
and Boston with what can be seen in these cities to-day, 
and he will find most convincing evidence of the virtue of 
legislative action. It is exceedingly hard for a city to reform 
itself from within, especially in the field of public education. 
When corruption has once fixed its deathly grasp upon the 
official power, and its benumbing influence has extended to 
every part of the system and perhaps throughout the com- 
munity, nothing short of a miracle can cause its overthrow. 

The question open for discussion, then, is not whether the 
state shall have a large control of city affairs, but rather, 
what the nature of that control shall be. To what extent 
shall cities be exempted from laws controlhng the schools 
of rural communities ? We reserve to a later discussion 
the question of taxation and distribution of revenue for 
school purposes, but it will always be a question whether 
states in undertaking to contribute more for the support of 
schools should exercise a more paternal influence over city 
systems. 

Tendencies toward Centralization in City Government. — No 
doubt the examples of good city governments to be seen on 
the continent of Europe have had considerable influence in 
this country, at least indirectly, in recent years. Not only 
have students of this subject as well as statesmen aspired to 
bring about a more businesslike and economical administra- 
tion of municipal affairs, but the feeling has grown that a 
larger degree of home rule is necessary in order to insure a 
higher type of administration. A commission appointed in 
New York as early as 1876 to devise a plan for the govern- 
ment of cities found that the introduction of state and national 
politics into city affairs was one obstacle to be overcome and 



124 Educational Administration 

another was the assumption by the legislature of so large a 
degree of direct control. The remedies proposed, all of 
which tended to restrict legislative action, and to extend to 
the cities a larger degree of local action, failed in securing the 
desired legislation. Evidently the lawmakers of the state 
were not then ready for extensive reforms.^ Mr. Bryce, in 
this connection, calls attention to certain reforms which were 
canvassed during the subsequent period. They were briefly : 
{a) civil service reform ; {U) lengthening the terms of ser- 
vice of the Mayor and heads of departments ; {c) granting of 
larger powers to the Mayor ; {d) the election of the city 
legislature at large instead of by wards ; {e) the limitation of 
taxing and borrowing powers by reference to the assessed 
value of taxable property. It is interesting to note that all 
these suggested improvements noted by Mr. Bryce as being 
in the air at the time he wrote his invaluable work, have 
been prominent features in the municipal reforms which have 
actually been worked out. More than this, the administra- 
tion of many city school systems has profited both directly 
and indirectly by the practical effect of these principles. 

An Example of Good Government. — It is not too much to 
say that municipal reform in this country received its great- 
est encouragement from the success of the first Mayor ^ who 
occupied that position in Brooklyn under a charter which 
went into effect on the first day of January, 1882. Never 
before in this country had a city government been adminis- 
tered as a business corporation. Never before had there 
been such definite placing of responsibility with absolute re- 
quirement of honest and efficient service. This administra- 
tion was immensely popular with the people because every 
complaint received prompt attention and, as far as possible, 
the complainant was satisfied. So high-minded and efficient 
was the poHcy pursued that the Mayor had the hearty sup- 
port of the Common Council which was politically opposed 
to him. Political influence was eradicated from the entire 

1 Bryce, Americatt Commonwealth, p. 609. 

2 " An American View of Municipal Government," by Hon. Seth Low in 
Bryce, American Commonwealth, Chap. 52. 



City School Systems 125 

municipal service. So highly respected throughout the 
commonwealth was this administration that although many 
attempts at interference were made, at Albany, " no law 
objected to by the Mayor during this interval was placed 
upon the statute books." 

Centralization of Power. — The tendency^ to centralize 
authority in the Mayor and the heads of departments in the 
city government so successfully inaugurated here became, in 
the years following, a rallying-cry wherever new city charters 
were desired. In 1884 New York City adopted the same 
idea. From that time until 1897 charters giving practically 
the absolute power of appointment were granted to Buffalo, 
Cleveland, Boston, Lowell, Holyoke, Rochester, Syracuse, 
Albany, and Troy. 

Next came the power of the Mayor to remove heads of 
departments, though this idea became operative in fewer 
cities than did the power of appointment. The veto power 
of the Mayor has also become well estabhshed. 

Another step in centralization and in efficiency is seen in 
the small Board of Estimate in which the Mayor and Comp- 
troller are leading members. More than a dozen cities have 
adopted this method of controlHng the budget. The impor- 
tance of the legislative branch of the city government has 
necessarily diminished, and the single chamber idea is in the 
ascendency. 

In the discussion of the state as related to public education 
we have pointed out that while large freedom should be given 
to city school s'ystems in the practical working out of every 
problem, it is well that the state should hold a supervisory 
relation to tfie city, thus securing throughout the common- 
wealth a good degree of uniformity and efficiency. This idea 
of the value of state oversight of such departments as health, 
charity, and education is likely to become a cardinal principle 
in all attempts to define the relations of the state and the city. 

Enough has been said to show the trend of municipal 
government in recent years, and we can see in this whole 
movement the index finger of progress pointing to a more 
^ Fairlie, Municipal Administration, Chap. 5. 



126 Educational Administration 

definite placing of responsibility upon small groups of persons 
or upon individuals who can be held responsible for the 
honest and efficient performance of their duties. 

Special Functions of the Municipality in respect to Educa- 
tion. — While many states are inclined to take a more active 
participation in the supervision of all educational institutions 
within their limits, care has usually been taken not to restrict 
or curtail the activity of city systems in the differentiation 
and the development of the various branches of their work. 
This has hitherto been true, not only in states like Massachu- 
setts, where there is the largest possible degree of local con- 
trol in educational matters, but also in New York, which has 
the most highly centrahzed and the highest degree of state 
control to be found in any commonwealth. It is difficult to 
predict what may happen a good many years hence, because 
we are far from having reached a static condition, and many 
things are possible. It is safe to predict, however, that the 
city in educational affairs is to have an autonomy distinct 
from the state, and will be permitted to organize and support 
its schools with little dictation from outside. Even should 
states prescribe courses of study, they will be regarded as a 
minimum requirement, and cities can expand and broaden 
their curriculum to suit their own needs. Any other course 
than this would be restrictive and subversive of the best 
results. 

The Control by the City. — At the present time nearly half 
of the more important cities regard their school systems as a 
part of the city government. In this list will be found 
Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, Newark, New York, 
Chicago, Providence, Worcester, Springfield (Mass.), and 
others. In all such cities the school budget showing what 
funds are desired for the several departments of the school 
system is prepared by the Board of Education and submitted 
to the Common Council, or the Board of Estimate, which has 
the power to summon representatives of the Board for more 
detailed information and to modify or reduce estimates, if this 
is found to be expedient. While this plan of organization 
has often been in disfavor because of the political nature of 



City School Systems 127 

many city governments, and the difficulty of securing just 
treatment of educational needs, the best authorities are in- 
clined to feel that, under right conditions, it works better 
than any other. The city in all its fiscal affairs should act 
as a unit. The board having in hand the matter of apportion- 
ing funds should consider all the items in the budget, not 
only in relation to each other, but in full view of the assessed 
valuation of property and the amount of tax which may justly 
and properly be assessed for all purposes. It certainly would 
be vicious to have different boards within the same city com- 
peting for the revenues derived from taxation. 

School Boards Independent. — It is undoubtedly true that dur- 
ing the period when municipalities have been finding them- 
selves and working out more thoroughgoing and efficient 
methods of doing business, cities like Cincinnati, Indianapolis, 
Toledo, Omaha, Utica, Duluth, Youngstown, and many others 
have been able to act more independently and often more 
successfully than would have been the case under the plan 
of city domination. Boards of education in some, at least, 
of these cities have been not only most reputable, but compe- 
tent and public-spirited. As city government improves, the 
tendency will undoubtedly be to centralize authority and to 
bring every department under the same power. Whether 
boards of education will eventually make place for the single 
commissioner, or whether it will be found expedient and de- 
sirable to have the Superintendent of Schools possess full 
powers and be directly responsible to the Mayor, as in the 
case of the Commissioner of Streets or of Police, it is too 
early to predict. Certain it is that power and responsibihty 
must go together wherever they are placed. And the city 
government must eventually take the form of a business cor- 
poration, conducting all its affairs with the utmost directness, 
economy, and skill. 

Special Charter Provisions. — The most important event in 
the recent history of school administration has been a radical 
change accomplished in certain cities through special charter 
provisions and legislative acts, which at one stroke have 
secured the most far-reaching reforms. New York and New 



128 Educational Administration 

Haven are instances of reform through new charters, while 
Rochester and Boston have achieved equally important re- 
forms by amendments to existing statutes. 

The Revised Charter for New York. — The revised charter 
of 1 90 1 for the city of New York was the result of much 
study and considerable experience in connection with the 
provisions of the charter of 1898. It provides for a central 
board of forty-six members appointed by the Mayor : twenty- 
two for the Borough of Manhattan, fourteen for the Borough 
of Brooklyn, four for the Borough of the Bronx, four for the 
Borough of Queens, and two for the Borough of Richmond. 

The Board of Education is required to divide the city into 
forty-six local school-board districts. It is provided that a 
local school board, consisting of seven members, shall be 
appointed, five by the president of the board, a member of 
the Board of Education appointed by the president of that 
board, and the district superintendent. These local boards 
do not appoint teachers, but have the power to transfer them, 
subject to the approval of the Board of Superintendents. 
They inspect and report upon schools, recommend additional 
accommodations when needed, report any failure of duty to 
the Board of Education, consider and determine questions 
relating to discipline, corporal punishment, etc., try charges 
against teachers, supervise janitors, report vacancies in the 
teaching staff, and see that laws relating to the sanitary con- 
dition of schools are enforced. They also have minor duties, 
such as reporting the absences of teachers, etc. 

From the central board an executive committee of fifteen 
is appointed, in which each borough is represented. The 
city superintendent has large powers. He, with eight as- 
sociate city superintendents, constitutes a Board of Super- 
intendents. This board has practical control of all educational 
matters, such as the making of rules and regulations, promo- 
tion of pupils, recommending text-books, course of study, and 
nominating persons to fill all vacancies in the teaching force. 
Provision is also made for twenty-six district superintendents, 
who supervise schools in their own districts under the direc- 
tion of the Board of Superintendents. 



City School Systems 129 

The board of four examiners, appointed for six years, ex- 
amines all teachers, and appointments are made from an 
eligible list. A supervisor of lectures is appointed for a term 
of six years. All funds are dispersed through the depart- 
ment of finance. A teachers' retirement fund is established 
for the entire city, the benefits of which accrue to all teachers, 
superintendents, and members of the Board of Commissioners. 

The compulsory law is administered by the city Superin- 
tendent of Schools, who is empowered to nominate attendance 
officers. Important amendments to this law were made to 
the effect that — 

No child between fourteen and sixteen years of age should be employed 
who did not obtain from the Board of Health an employment certificate based 
upon an actual school attendance of 130 days after his thirteenth birthday. 
It was further provided that all boys between fourteen and sixteen who had 
not completed the course of study for the evening schools should attend 
evening schools four evenings each week for a period of sixteen weeks in 
each year.^ 

Working under this charter provision, the Board of Edu- 
cation has provided for a superintendent of libraries, general 
director of physical culture, and supervisor of janitors. 

Result of Reform. — No one who has watched, even in a 
superficial manner, the progress of events in New York City 
schools during these years of modification and reform can 
but be highly gratified at the large results which have been 
accomplished. It is true that new adaptations of means to end 
on so large a scale have occasioned some friction, and many 
who formerly wielded influence in various ways have ever 
been ready to criticise the slightest evidence of fault in the 
new system, or of error on the part of those who have admin- 
istered it. But all candid persons will agree that in this 
metropolis of the United States a tremendous change has 
been wrought, full of benefits to every home in the city and 
to every child seeking an education. Considered on the 
material side, the system has provided, with almost miracu- 
lous rapidity, many schoolhouses impressive in their archi- 
tecture and well adapted within to the purposes for which 

^ Palmer, Thi New York Public School, p. 312. 
K 



130 Educational Administration 

they are intended. A great system of high schools has 
been developed, highly differentiated and thoroughly modern. 
The needs of the delinquent and defective classes of children 
have not been overlooked. Schoolhouses have been opened 
as social centres, vacation schools, playgrounds, and various 
forms of athletic training have been provided. The great 
public lecture system is a significant feature of an educational 
scheme which considers the intellectual and ethical require- 
ments not only of the children, but of the entire community. 

Value of Centralization. — It should be observed that the 
crux of the whole thing is in the centralization of power in 
the hands of competent men, as, for example, the superin- 
tendent of buildings, supervisor of free lectures, and more 
especially in the superintendent of instruction. The tonic 
which is imparted to every part of the work and to every 
worker by these and other efficient heads of departments is 
like the life-blood in a living organism. 

It should be noted that the Mayor has usually appointed 
good men to the Board of Education, and they, in turn, have 
appointed a competent board of superintendents. And so 
the system has prospered and has become, because of its 
scope and comprehensiveness, an object lesson to the country. 

Changes Recommended. — The charter revision committee 
of 1907 recommends that the Board of Education be reduced 
in number from forty-six to fifteen, and that all mandatory 
provisions in the charter of 1891 relating to salaries, appro- 
priations for, and expenses of, the Board of Education, be 
repealed. This is in line with certain other leanings of the 
committee in favor of a larger degree of home rule. The 
suggestion of a reduction in number of the members of the 
board is worthy of notice as indicating the tendency wher- 
ever reform measures are undertaken in earnest. 

The problem of local boards which shall serve to give the 
people a close relationship to the schools has not been fully 
solved. To clothe such boards with any considerable authority 
would make the system unwieldy. Boards of visitors having 
only advisory power are less likely to cause friction. 

Changes in New Haven. — Another instance of important 



City School Systems 131 

reforms accomplished through new city charters is seen in the 
city of New Haven, Connecticut. Prior to 1899, the town of 
New Haven, the New Haven city school district, and the city 
had all preserved their separate organizations and had their 
separate functions. The New Haven city school district was 
independent of both the town and city as regarded its finan- 
cial action. In open town meeting it could decide what tax 
should be imposed for the support of schools, could vote 
money for the erection of new buildings for which it could 
issue bonds to an unlimited extent. The Board of Education 
was composed of nine members, and by common consent it 
had been for many years practically non-partisan. The mem- 
bers were elected at large, but the board had not been free 
from the pernicious influence of certain undesirable members, 
who by their tendency to political intrigue did not command 
the confidence of the community. In the main, however, it 
should be said that the board as a whole had maintained 
an honorable record and the schools had been conducted 
honestly. It is one of those instances where, with a system 
which was far from ideal, a good standard of honesty and 
efficiency was maintained. By the charter of 1889 the boun- 
daries of the town became those of the city, and the corporate 
existence of the New Haven city school district came to an 
end. 

Under the new charter, the Board of Education consists of 
seven members appointed by the Mayor. The Superintend- 
ent who, after one year, can be appointed for five years, is not 
removable except by vote of five members. He is given 
power to appoint all principals and teachers, to reassign or 
dismiss them, and report the same at the next meeting of the 
board. The Superintendent, also, with the approval of the 
Board of Education, prescribes courses of study, but the text- 
books are designated by the board. 

The Board of Education submits to the Board of Finance 
a detailed estimate of its expenses for each year, and the 
Board of Finance appropriates such amounts as it may deem 
necessary both for general and special purposes, and levies a 
sufficient tax to meet these appropriations. The Board of 



132 Educational Administration 

Education is required to make annually to the Mayor a full 
report of its financial proceedings. 

Reform in Rochester. — Equally significant changes in school 
administration have been effected by state laws. There is 
no better example of a complete, carefully considered, and 
thoroughgoing statute provision than that for the govern- 
ment of the schools of Rochester, New York, as amended in 
1901. 

The Board of Education is composed of five commissioners 
elected at large. They each receive a compensation of 
;^i200 per annum. Any member may be removed by the 
Mayor for cause. 

This board controls and manages the public school system 
and all its property, subject only to the general statutes of 
the state. This includes the important duty of purchasing 
sites, and constructing and caring for schoolhouses. 

The board appoints a superintendent of pubHc schools 
whose term of office shall be four years, a secretary who shall 
serve during the pleasure of the board, a supervising archi- 
tect, and all other officers, principals and teachers, and fixes 
their salaries. 

Here, also, the Board of Education is subject to the Court of 
Common Council in respect to all estimates, expenses, receipts, 
and disbursements. 

Appropriations. — The Court of Common Council is required 
to appropriate for the Department of Education a sum equal 
to $25 per capita, based on the total number enrolled as 
pupils in the public schools, in case the estimates submitted 
do not exceed that amount. In case the estimates are in 
excess of that amount, the Common Council may, in its discre- 
tion, raise by tax the amount required. 

The amount raised for school purposes constitutes five dis- 
tinct funds ; namely, the teachers' fund, the contingent fund, 
the building fund, the repair fund, and the library fund. If 
any of these funds prove to be inadequate to meet the ex- 
penses of the year, the Common Council has the power to 
borrow and apportion such moneys to the several funds as 
may be necessary. 



City School Systems 133 

The Superintendent is given large powers in respect to 
supervision and management, recommending for appointment, 
assignment, and transfer of principals, teachers, and pupils, 
and the enforcement of the compulsory education law. The 
new law provides for a board of examiners consisting of the 
Superintendent and two persons appointed by the Superin- 
tendent, who are paid for services actually rendered. This 
board of examiners prepares an eligible list, which is reported 
to the Board of Education, and is open to public inspection. 
The Superintendent nominates principals, but the teachers in 
each school are nominated by the Superintendent and prin- 
cipal jointly. 

This law for Rochester differs from the charter provision 
for New Haven, in that the Superintendent does not formally 
appoint teachers, and the board is elected at large instead of 
being appointed by the Mayor. 

The Boston Situation. — A still more recent and even more 
striking instance of radical reform is seen in the city of 
Boston. Previous to 1875 this city had a board of 116 mem- 
bers. In that year by an act of the legislature the school 
committee was reorganized and consisted of twenty-four per- 
sons. Subsequent to that date various acts were passed en- 
larging the powers of the board, but there was also enough 
of political influence in its membership to vitiate the integrity 
of its action and to bring the school system into disrepute. 
After many efforts to secure from the legislature relief from 
this condition of things, an act was passed in 1905, the effects 
of which have been most marked and salutary. Under this 
act the School Committee consists of five members elected at 
large to serve without compensation. By an act passed in 
1906 the School Committee elects a superintendent of 
schools to hold office for four years, and six assistant super- 
intendents. These constitute a board to be known as the 
Board of Superintendents and to have all the powers which 
had previously been conferred upon the Board of Super- 
visors. The great success which has thus far attended the 
work of the School Committee and the Board of Superin- 
tendents under the new law is due largely to the personality 



134 Educational Administration 

and force of the chairman, who was the author of the 
new law, and who has done much to make it effective. The 
board thus far has been ideal in its composition, and has 
justly earned the confidence of the people. Their good 
judgment in giving the Board of Superintendents a large 
field for executive action is one of the strong features of the 
reform movement. It may justly be said of Boston that its 
schools for many years have been better in standard and in 
tone than the caliber and conduct of the School Committee 
would have led one to expect. Under the present regime it 
is to be hoped that the city which has always been one of the 
chief seats of culture may resume the position of leadership 
in public education which she possessed in earlier years. 

St. Louis. — Were it necessary to multiply examples of re- 
formed school administration, it would be only necessary to 
refer to those states which have recently passed general laws 
regulating the form of administration for cities of various 
size. Of this kind of legislation, St. Louis is a good illustra- 
tion. Here we find a board of twelve members whose chief 
executive officers are the Superintendent of Instruction and 
the Commissioner of School Buildings. We also find a clear 
division of legislative and executive functions, so that the 
system works smoothly and effectively. The administration 
of the system has been marked by businesslike ability and 
educational acumen. 

Cleveland. — The city of Cleveland has the distinction of 
having conducted schools for several years under the most 
radical legislative act ever passed in this country, namely, 
that of 1892. Its provisions, while unusual, were character- 
ized as ideal, and in their operation proved to be so for sev- 
eral years. A school council of seven members elected at 
large was given legislative powers respecting school property 
and the control of the budget. A school director elected by 
the people received a salary of ^5000 per annum, and gave 
bonds in $25,000 for the faithful performance of his duties. 
The school director appointed the Superintendent who was 
responsible to him and who was required to report to him 
annually upon all matters under his supervision. The Sup- 



City School Systems 135 

erintendent was given sole power to appoint and discharge 
all principals and teachers. When it came to pass that a 
school director was elected who was wanting in those high 
qualities necessary for a position of such power and responsi- 
bility, the system received its death-blow. A general law 
passed in 1904 affecting all the cities of the state changed 
the School Council of Cleveland into a Board of Education 
of seven members. The school director became simply a 
business-manager, and he as well as the Superintendent of 
Instruction became responsible to the Board of Education. 
Other cities which have accomplished changes resulting in a 
smaller Board of Education and more centralized manage- 
ment are Baltimore, San Francisco, Washington, D.C., In- 
dianapolis, Toledo, and Los Angeles. 

The Effect of Honest Administration. — How beneficent the 
change from a political and unbusinesslike administration of 
schools to the simple, direct, and straightforward perform- 
ance of functions which is made possible under these newer 
charter provisions, and laws can be better understood as we 
discuss in the following chapter the subject of school boards 
and the relation they bear to the educational aims of school 
administration. In short, all these ideal features of educa- 
tional accompHshment which it is the purpose of this volume 
to emphasize are dependent upon such an organization of the 
school system as insures honesty, economy, and freedom of 
action. 

The ends sought by these new charters and laws are such 
as the banker, the manufacturer, or the merchant aims for in 
the conduct of his business. The same reasons which make 
one business enterprise successful and make its promoter the 
object of admiration, not to say envy, apply in the manage- 
ment of a school system. If the organization is simple and 
flexible, and every officer can perform his duties with no 
other purpose in mind than to be honest and efficient, a 
school system at once rises in the respect and confidence of 
the community, and there is increased opportunity for the 
growth of self-respecting professional ability. 



136 Educational Administration 



REFERENCES 

Goodnow, F. J. City Government in the United States. — James, E.J. 
The Growth of Great Cities, Ann. Am. Acad. 13 : i. — Zeublin, C. Amer- 
ican Municipal Progress. New York, 1902. — Robinson, C. M. The 
Improvement of Towns and Cities. New York, 1902. — Conkling, A. R. 
City Government in the United States. — Eaton, D. B. The Government 
of MunicipaUties. New York, 1899. — Wright, C. D. Industrial Edu- 
cation in the United States. New York, 1902. — Morrison, F. Municipal 
Government a Corporate, not a Municipal, Problem, Forum, 13 : 788. — Eliot, 
C. W. City Government by Fewer Men, World's Work, 14:9419. — 
Goodnow, F. J. Municipal Home Rule and Municipal Problems. — Bryce, 
J. American Commonwealth. — Shaw, A. Municipal Government in 
Continental Europe. New York, 1901. — Maxwell, W. H. Charter 
Provisions as related to the Organization of School Systems, N. E. A. 
1905 : 214. Laws relating to the School Committee, Rep. of the 
Bos. Sch. Com. 1906:107. Digest of Laws regulating the Administration, 
Character, and Finances of the Public School Systems of the States of the 
Union, C. R. 1894: 1063. Chicago Educational Commission, i. — Dexter, 
E. G. History of Education in the United States. Women in School 
Administration, C. R. 1901 : 2406 ; 1903 : 2457 ; 1904 : 2289. — Draper, A. S. 
Common Schools in the Larger Cities, Forum, 1899: 385. — Marble, A. P. 
City School Administration, Ed. Rev. 1894: 154. — Rice, J. M. Public 
Schools of Boston, Forum, 1892 : 753 ; of Chicago and St. Paul, id. 1893 : 
200 ; of Minneapolis and others, id. 1893 : 362 ; of New York City, id. 1892 : 
616; of Philadelphia, id. 1893:31. The Social Unit in Public School 
Systems in the United States, C. R. 1895 : 1457. 



CHAPTER IX 

The Administration of the City School System 

Board of Education: Number of Members. — A study of the 
history of school committees and boards of education reveals 
all the vagaries of politics which have beset our growing 
American communities. As union and city districts have 
often been formed by consolidation or by the addition of 
suburban areas, and because every district or ward desires 
representation, boards of education have frequently grown 
so large and unwieldy as to preclude the possibiUty of direct- 
ness and despatch in the transaction of business. Philadel- 
phia with its board of 500, and Pittsburg with its 234, have 
in their achievements yielded striking examples of what 
ought not to happen. 1 It were just as well to follow the ex- 
ample of one of the New England towns which is said to 
have 200 trustees, one for every teacher employed. The 
evils and disadvantages of large boards have been seen in 
nearly all our large cities. They have often presented the 
appearance of a legislature, with parliamentary procedure, 
floods of oratory, log-rolling, and those methods of interfer- 
ence which effectually destroy the good intentions of execu- 
tive officers. Simple matters of management and discipline, 
which could have been settled in iive minutes by a superin- 
tendent, have been fought out on the low plane of party 
politics, and have too often been settled by party vote. 

As has been seen in the instances of municipal reform 
already cited, the number of members of the Board of Edu- 
cation has been greatly reduced. Thus the Boston board, 
which until 1875 had 116 and latterly 24, is now reduced 
to 5. In Rochester the number was changed from 16 to 5, in 

1 Report of Chicago Educational Commission, p. 10. 
137 



138 Educational Administration 

New Haven from 9 to 7, in Baltimore from 29 to 9, in St. 
Louis from 21 to 12, in Indianapolis from 11 to 5, in Mil- 
waukee from 36 to 21, in Atlanta from 14 to 7. These re- 
ductions indicate the trend, and while there are many school 
systems suffering from the larger boards with their attendant 
evils of ward politics and corrupt influence, yet the spirit of 
reform is abroad, and the smaller and more effective board 
is quite sure to replace the larger one. It is safe to say that 
there is no case on record where a very large board has not 
ultimately degenerated into a debating society of very com- 
mon-place nature, and has been a serious handicap to educa- 
tional progress. 

Who make Good Members. — The question, What kind of 
people are best fitted for board membership, has been 
thought worthy of a place in discussions of this kind. One 
thoughtful student of this subject has discriminated against 
a considerable list of professions and occupations which he 
thinks are not calculated to produce the right people for this 
office. The same writer is not in favor of women as school 
board members.^ Doubtless many individual instances could 
be found of men retired from business, politicians, unlearned 
men, and even women who are not well fitted to deal 
broadly and justly with educational affairs ; but after all, 
in this field as in all others, personality, intelligence, and 
honesty are the qualities needed, and they are to be found 
in every vocation and in men and women alike. 

Board should be Representative. — It is far less important 
that different sections of the city or different classes should 
be represented than that the board should include different 
kinds of trained ability. It goes without saying that the 
lawyer, the doctor, and the clergyman can each perform 
service of a peculiar character, growing out of his profes- 
sional experience. The man of affairs or the industrial 
leader may render equally valuable service. It may also 
be said that the mechanic or wage-earner of limited educa- 
tion may prove a valuable member. The writer recalls with 
pleasure services of a high order given by men of no educa- 
1 Chancellor, Our Schools, p. 13. 



The Administratio7i of the City School System 139 

tion except what they had gained by a lifetime of self-reliant 
toil. 

The justice and wisdom of having women represented 
would hardly seem to need argument. The proper adjust- 
ment of school life to the needs of Httle children is best 
understood by women. Moreover, the growing life of girls 
in our public schools has too seldom had that sympathetic 
and watchful oversight which only women can give. Cases 
might be cited where at the present time in small boards of 
education one or two women supply a much-needed element 
in making the schools humane, hygienic, and homelike. 

Methods of Appointment. — Probably the most incapable 
boards now existing were elected by wards. Of course, a 
small board cannot be so elected, and when all cities have 
been purged by the spirit of reform, there will be no place 
for ward politics in school elections. 

Far better is the election of board members by the people 
at large. One thus elected becomes a representative of the 
entire population. If the board is small, say five or seven 
members, his actions are so clearly in the light that unless 
entirely regardless of public opinion he is held up to honor- 
able conduct. Suffice it to say that small boards elected at 
large have not usually failed of being respectable. 

The third method of securing members is their appoint- 
ment by the Mayor. This gives the school department the 
same possibility of high and honorable service that is ac- 
corded to other city departments. Moreover, it places the 
responsibility upon the Mayor of selecting for this high 
office men and women who will be approved by the people. 
It is a noticeable fact that in New York City the Mayor in 
recent years has ignored party lines, and has appointed to 
this office the best available persons. But the jealousy with 
which many communities cling to their political rights and 
privileges makes it difficult to secure the provision for an 
appointive board in a revised charter or in an amended 
statute. Those seeking educational reform for the city of 
Boston, after trying for ten years to get a law which in- 
cluded this feature, were glad to accept the small board to be 



140 Educational Administration 

elected at large. Other cities have had to make the same 
concession. 

Length of Term. — The Chicago commission recommended 
that the term of office for board members be four years, and 
this corresponds to the practice in several cities where the 
matter has been most carefully considered. In the case of 
a small board it permits changes to be made successively, 
while a nucleus of those who have had experience continue 
in office. Whether elected at large or appointed by the 
Mayor, experience has shown that competent and devoted 
members are retained for more than one term, in case they 
are willing to serve. 

Compensation of Members. — The practice of paying mem- 
bers of the board has been adopted in only a few instances. 
In Rochester, where each of the five members receives 
$1200 per annum, the plan has thus far worked satisfactorily. 
But it is a dangerous precedent, especially where members 
are elected by the people. It offers too large an inducement 
to common men to seek the office for pecuniary reasons and 
to resort to the uses of political machinery to accomplish the 
purpose. Besides, the payment of a salary implies a degree 
of responsibility which might encroach upon the executive 
functions of the Superintendent of Schools. If, as we hope 
to point out later, the true field of the Board of Education 
is purely legislative and advisory, it is a mistaken policy to 
have salaried boards and make it necessary that for con- 
science' sake they earn their money by performing duties 
which had better be undertaken by professional experts. 
The people's schools lie so close to the desires and aspira- 
tions of patriotic and public-spirited citizens, that it will 
never be difficult to find men and women who are glad, for a 
term of years, to serve their city and their country on boards 
of education. 

Standing Committees. — In respect to this matter the 
Chicago commission again, after gathering advice from a 
large number of experienced educators, decided that for 
that great city the school system could best be administered 
by having only three subcommittees; namely, one on edu- 



The Adininistratio7i of the City School System 141 

cational affairs, one on business affairs, and one on finan- 
cial affairs. In several instances these three committees are 
organized under the head of schools, buildings, and finance. 
How mediaeval and cumbersome many school systems are, 
is seen quite as well in the large number of standing com- 
mittees which the board appoints as in the size of the board 
itself. Rochester, whose board at present has no standing 
committees, formerly had fourteen ; and as this is a typical in- 
stance of what still exists in many places, it is worth while 
to notice what duties were assigned to each. They were 
named as follows : — 

Finance. Qualification and employment of teachers. Organization of 
schools, and grievances. Text-books, library, and apparatus. Repairs. 
Buildings. Supplies. Fuel and fire fixtures. Printing. Free academy. 
Salaries. Janitors. Law. Apportionment. 

What chance is there that a school board can deal con- 
sistently and effectively with the business of the depart- 
ment when it is parcelled out in this way, with the possibility 
of frequent confliction and overlapping of functions } And 
what possibility is there that a superintendent, however 
honest and capable, can bring his expert judgment to bear 
upon every school and every teacher in an efficient way, when 
he must wait upon 14 different subcommittees to whom are 
intrusted many of the things which he is best fitted to 
manage .-* 

There is the widest difference of practice in regard to 
standing committees. Kansas City has 9, Lynn 9, Pawtucket 
12, New Haven 3, St. Louis 3, New Orleans 9, Philadelphia 
27, Duluth 4, Wilmington 15, Grand Rapids 5, Reading 9, 
Paterson 4, Springfield (Mass.) 15. 

This list is sufficient to show the varying custom ; and while 
it would hardly be safe to say that school systems may be 
classed as successful and unsuccessful according as they 
have few or many standing committees, yet it would be 
easy to show that those boards of education which have no 
committees at all, or at least not more than three, are mak- 
ing a better record for both business and educational accom- 
plishment. 



142 Educational Administration 

The Board as a Legislative Body. — Here, again, the Chi- 
cago commission urges that the board should be largely leg- 
islative, and that the executive functions be performed by 
two paid experts ; namely, the superintendent of schools and 
a business manager. Such authorities as Dr. A. S. Draper, 
President Butler, and President Eliot have made this a sine 
qua non in their able advocacy of reform measures in school 
administration. This principle has already ceased in its 
application to be experimental. It has given added dignity 
to school boards, and has made of the superintendency 
practically a new office. In this respect school administra- 
tion is but following the best models of city government, 
where there is the most definite fixing of responsibility and 
authority, accompanied by large freedom of action. 

Magnitude of the Issue. — The school department of an 
American city is easily the first in importance of all munici- 
pal functions. Its budget is usually far larger than that 
of any other department. It has already undertaken a de- 
gree of differentiation of form and specialization of function 
which precludes the possibility of successful management 
other than by those thoroughly trained and experienced. 
The Board of Education should provide all the means neces- 
sary for carrying on the work, such as securing needed funds 
and constructing buildings, and should be ready to advise its 
executive officers whenever such advice is needed or desired. 
The agents whom they have elected to perform in detail the 
executive functions of the board are easily removed if found 
to be either incompetent or unworthy of confidence. They 
should give to these officers the most unqualified support as 
long as they perform faithfully and well their duties, and 
should be prompt in holding them to strict account in case 
of any failure of duty or evident unfitness for their task. 

Nothing is more promising for the future of public educa- 
tion in the United States than the salutary lessons which 
are to be learned from those cities which have carried 
into school management the principles of municipal govern- 
ment and business reform. How soon these principles will 
be universally accepted and applied, it is difficult to say ; 



The Administration of the City School System 143 

but every community has men and women who are thinking 
along these lines, and every state legislature stands ready to 
listen and to respond if the appeal for help is made with 
earnestness and sincerity. 

REFERENCES 

Addams, J. Democracy and Social Ethics. — Chancellor, W. Board 
and Superintendent, Ed. 22 : 340. — Palmer, A. E. The New York Public 
Schools. — Lowell, A. L. The Professional and Non-professional Bodies in 
our School System, N. E. A. 1898 : 999. — Bryce, J. American Common- 
wealth, Chicago Educational Commission Report, 32-58. — Young, W. H. 
Defects in our Public School System. Ed. 26:526. City Planning: 
Theory and Practice, Char, and the Com. XIX : 18. — Tarbell, H. S. City 
School Supervision, Ed. Rev. 3:65. — Gove, A. City School Supervision^ 
Ed. Rev. 2 : 256. — Draper, A. S. Plans of Organization for School Pur- 
poses in Large Cities, Ed. Rev. 6: i. — Young, J. T. The Administration 
of City Schools, Ann. Am. Acad. 15:171. — Rollins, F. Municipal 
School Administration. — Tucker, M. A. School Supervision by the School 
Board, Ed. 23 : 419. — Marble, A. P. City School Administration, Ed. 
Rev. 8 : 154. — Burnham, W. H. Principles of Municipal School Adminis- 
tration, Atl. Mo. 95 : 105. — Butler, N. M. Problems of Educational Ad- 
ministration. Ed. Rev. 32:515. — Hunsicker, B. F. School Boards: 
their Functions, N. E. A. 1903 : 910. — Watkins, T. H. Selection of School 
Boards : a Comparison of Methods in Operation, N. E. A. 1897 : 988. Legal 
Status of School Boards in Cities, C. R. 1903:2431; 1904:2299. State 
and City School Officers, C. R. 1904: 1149. — Boykin, J. C. Organization 
of City School Boards, Ed. Rev. 13 : 232. — Jones, L. H. The Best Methods 
of Electing School Boards, E. N. A. 1903 : 185. Laws regulating to City 
School Boards, C. R. 1896: 3. — ^ Greenwood, J. M. The Superintendent, 
and the Board of Education, Ed. Rev. 18:363. — Philbrick, J. D. City 
School Systems in the United States. U. S. Bur. of Ed., Circ. of Inf. 
1885: no. I. — Gove, A. Public School Systems in the United States, 
C. R. 1903:351. — Bruce, W. G. School Board Manual. Milwaukee, 
1904. — Cloyd, Economics of City School Administration, Ed. 25: 
193. — Rice, J. M. Need of a New Basis of Supervision, Forum, 35 : 590. 
School Supervision, C. R. 1902:556. — Rollins, F. Municipal School 
Administration. Boston School Administration, Ed. Rev. 31 : 395. 



CHAPTER X 

The Financing of Public Education 

Expenditure for Education. — The United States Commis- 
sioner of Education estimates in his report for 1906 (p. ix) that 
the various states had spent, during the preceding fiscal year, 
the sum of over ^307,000,000 on pubhc elementary and sec- 
ondary schools. This represents over two-fifths of all expendi- 
tures for public purposes by state, counties, cities, towns, etc., 
and is over 20 per cent of all forms of public expenditure, in- 
cluding that of the United States government. Of this 
amount about 3.5 per cent is derived from income on perman- 
ent state or local funds, 15 per cent from state taxation, 70 
per cent from local (county, town, or district) taxation, and the 
remainder from various special sources, usually fines, license 
fees, etc. The value of school property is given at ^783,000,- 
000. Estimated in terms of population, the amount annually 
raised for the support of public education is equivalent to 
^3.67 per capita, or, in terms of the number of pupils in aver- 
age daily attendance, ^26.27 per capita. The value of school 
property is over ^9 per capita of population and almost 
^70 per capita of average attendance. 

The Growth of this form of public expenditure in recent 
years is significant. Since 1870 the increase per capita of 
population has been from ^1.64 to 1^3.57, or a gain of almost 
124 per cent. For each pupil in average attendance the 
expenditure has increased from ^15.25 to ^26.27, a gain of 
almost 70 per cent. In the same time the amount of money 
invested in school property has in terms of per capita of popu- 
lation increased about 175 per cent- 
Results. — And yet when the country is taken as a whole 
it can be seen that this relatively enormous expenditure falls 
very far short of providing adequate school facilities for all 

144 



The Financing of Public Education 145 

children. It gives an average length of school term of only 
151 days of teaching, and an average monthly salary to men 
teachers of ^56.31 and to women teachers of ^43.80. Fur- 
ther inadequacy is shown by the fact that the average num- 
ber of days attended by pupils enrolled was only 106. It is 
evident that while the support of public education has rapidly 
advanced in America, the demands made upon the public 
funds have also multiplied, and will continue to increase if 
current educational ideals are to be realized. 

The Sources of this income for school purposes are to be 
found mainly in the taxable property of the country. The 
gross value of this taxable property has also increased greatly 
since 1870, but the per capita increase has not been equal to 
that of school expenditure. The average per capita wealth 
of the nation (in terms of taxable property) in 1870 is given 
as ^624, while in 1904 it had increased to ^1234, or an 
increase of nearly 100 per cent; but in the meantime the 
per capita expenditure for schools had increased 124 per 
cent.^ 

Increased Outlay of money is involved in almost every ad- 
vance step that is proposed in public education. Better 
teachers can only be had through the expenditure of more 
money for salaries ; a reduction of the number of pupils per 
teacher in cities means greater outlay ; the lengthening of 
the school year in rural districts can be purchased only 
through higher local or state taxation ; and the develop- 
ment of new types of schools and school facilities also in- 
volves increased expenditure. Other matters, like more 
adequate supervision, the increase in the size of the area 
of even distribution of school funds so as to confer larger 
support on the poorer regions, and the more extensive pro- 
vision of free text-books and better material facilities for 
education, can only be purchased through very materially 
increased financial outlay. 

Relation to Social Expenditure. — Large as is the cost of 
education, it is not so significant when contrasted with other 

^ Figures from Special United States Census Reports : Wealth, Debt, and 
Taxation, p. 44. 

L 



146 Educational Administration 

forms of social expenditure. It has frequently been pointed 
out that the outlay of society for liquor several times exceeds 
its expenditure for education ; that tobacco costs the country 
at least as much as its schools ; and that in recent years the 
amount of economic energy involved in advertising has ap- 
proximated the amount expended in education, both of which, 
therefore, represent approximately equal costs from the social 
point of view. It is evident, therefore, that from the stand- 
point of educational administration, the problem of finance 
is not altogether one of recognizing when the limits of pos- 
sible taxation have been reached ; but it involves such utiliza- 
tion of different sources of taxation and income as to return 
to society the largest possible amount with the least possible 
demand on productive and socially useful industries and 
activities. Undoubtedly in many communities the limits of 
desirable taxation of property values have been reached, but 
only in a few states so far has extensive use been made of 
other forms of taxation. 

Education a Social Investment. — The enormous outlay for 
education already made by the United States is not always 
sufficiently regarded as a form of social investment. Alto- 
gether apart from moral and other considerations, it should 
be evident that money wisely spent on education ultimately 
returns to the community excellent interest. Commissioner 
Harris has produced some figures which tend to show that 
in Massachusetts the productive capacity of the average 
individual is considerably greater than in the country at 
large, and the inference that this is due to the superior edu- 
cational facilities enjoyed by the state is at least tentatively 
justifiable. It is not always as easy for the community to 
see the direct returns that come from money invested in 
education as in the case of expenditure for roads or other 
public improvement. And yet in the long run this must be 
true, and it is the function of those who seek to justify 
increased public expenditure for schools to make it clear. 
In this connection, owing to the increasing mobility of popu- 
lation, there is reason to justify the existence of larger taxing 
units. A small town may not desire to tax itself heavily, for 



The Financing of Public Education 147 

example, for industrial education if it finds that its best men 
steadily drift away to other centres after receiving their 
training. But for the state at large, or even the nation, to 
assume a part of this burden would be entirely justifiable, 
since in the larger unit the benefits resulting from heavy 
outlay would ultimately tend to be felt by those who have 
paid the taxes, or at least by the community of which they 
are a part. 

I. SOURCES OF REVENUE IN DIFFERENT STATES 

Invested Funds. — Besides several minor sources, the pub- 
lic schools of the various states derive their chief revenue 
from three directions : income on permanent funds, largely 
created by lands donated to the states by the national gov- 
ernment ; state taxation ; and taxation in local areas under 
authorization of state law. Of the $322,000,000 raised by the 
various states in 1905-1906 for the common schools, 3.6 per 
cent came from income on permanent funds, but this amount 
varied largely among the different states. Nevada derives 
over 46 per cent, Texas over 28 per cent, Michigan over 23 
per cent, and Wyoming over 21 per cent of their school 
revenue from permanent investments ; while seven other 
states (Alabama, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Minnesota, North 
Dakota, South Dakota, and Oregon) derive more than 10 
per cent of their income from these sources. Naturally the 
North Atlantic states have very small invested funds, having 
had little public land, while in the Southern and Western 
states, where care has been taken of the donations made by 
the national government, revenues from this source are rela- 
tively large. 

State Taxation for school purposes also varies greatly. 
In some states apparently no provision is made, as Okla- 
homa, Michigan, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, Kan- 
sas, Wyoming, Colorado, and Oregon. In other states, like 
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Illinois, Minnesota, and Ne- 
braska, the contribution to school revenues from state taxa- 
tion is less than 5 per cent. On the other hand, in nearly all 



148 Educational Administration 

the Southern states this source of revenue is large, varying 
from 20 to 70 per cent. California raises over 45 per cent of 
the school revenue by various forms of state taxation, New 
Jersey over 30 per cent, Indiana 15 per cent, and Missouri 
over 12 per cent. Later discussion of the various sources of 
revenue will show that whereas state taxation has the advan- 
tage over local taxation of relieving the schools from the 
fluctuations of local support, it may or may not equaHze 
educational opportunity, according to the manner of its dis- 
tribution within the state. 

Local Taxation obviously is the mainstay of public educa- 
tion. But local taxation, too, takes several forms. It may 
be county taxation, in which case there may be tendencies 
towards equalization of educational opportunities within the 
county; or it may be purely local to the town, city, or district, 
in which case popular opinion plays a considerable part in 
determining its amount and in appreciating the results of its 
expenditure. In New Hampshire and Massachusetts over 90 
per cent of all school revenue is raised by purely local taxa- 
tion ; in Rhode Island, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, South Dakota, 
Kansas, Colorado, Arizona, and Oregon from 80 to 90 per 
cent. In North Carolina, South Carolina, and Mississippi 
the amount so raised is less than 20 per cent, and besides 
these only in Georgia, Kentucky, Alabama, Texas, Montana, 
Nevada, and Washington is it less than 50 per cent. 

Total Revenue. — But the full significance of state and 
local taxation can only be appreciated when taken in connec- 
tion with the entire relative outlay of the states for public 
education. Since totals are quite meaningless unless taken 
in connection either with population or number of children to 
be educated, we can simply refer to the commissioner's report 
for the former, and give the latter in abridged form. Tak- 
ing all the states together, the amount raised for public educa- 
tion in 1905-1906 was equivalent to 1^12.89 for each person 
between five and eighteen years of age, the ordinary limits of 
attendance in public schools. But in one state (Nevada) the 
amount so raised was in excess of $30 ; while in Massachu- 
setts, New York, Colorado, and CaHfornia it exceeded $2^ \ 



The Financing of Public Education 149 

and in North Dakota, Montana, and Washington it was in 
excess of $20. But in three states (North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Alabama) this amount was under $3 ; while in four 
others (Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Indian Territory) 
it was under $4. In all the states of the South Atlantic and 
South Central divisions the amount was under $10, averaging 
^4.04; while in all the North Central states it was over $\o, 
averaging $14.74; and in all the states of the Western divi- 
sion, except New Mexico, it was over $12, averaging $21.19. 
Excepting Maine and New Hampshire, which respectively 
raised over $12 and over $14 per child of from five to eighteen 
years of age, no state of the North Atlantic division raised 
less than $15 ; while the average for this group is $21.56. 
In other words, if estimated in terms of money raised, the 
educational opportunities of the child in the Western division 
or the North Atlantic division are from four to five times as 
good as those of the child of the South Atlantic or South Cen- 
tral division. 

This Disparity is not wholly explained on the basis of 
differences of taxable property, for while it is true that the 
per capita wealth of the Southern states is less than that of 
the North Atlantic and Western, the differences are not in pro- 
portion to the variation in wealth. The average per capita 
wealth of only one division exceeds $2000, as estimated in 
terms of property ; while in the South Central states the 
average is $659, and in the South Atlantic $716. The North 
Atlantic division, raising more than four times as much for 
education as the South, has a per capita valuation of property 
of $1694, or only about two and one-half times the value of 
property per capita in the South Central and South Atlantic 
states. The average per capita property valuation of Indi- 
ana is $1174, but that state raises $16.09 for each child 
between the ages of five and eighteen for educational pur- 
poses ; while Kentucky, with a per capita wealth of $675 in 
terms of property, raises but $3.94. Similar comparisons 
might be made to an indefinite extent, all of which, while 
tending to show a rough connection between property valua- 
tion in the various states and amount raised for school pur- 



150 Educational Administration 

poses, show also that interest in education and local systems 
of taxation have important influence. Of course this showing 
is not final ; for the abihty of a given community to stand a 
tax is dependent upon other factors than mere property valu- 
ation ; the character of the distribution of property is an 
important factor ; even more important may be the fact that 
payments for taxes represent in a sense expenditure from the 
surplus of income after necessities have been met, in which 
case the ability to pay taxes would not vary directly with 
average amount of property, but in something of a geometri- 
cal ratio. That is, if the average wealth of one community is 
a and that of another 3 a, the actual ability of the latter to pay 
taxes may be considerably greater than three times that of 
the former. 



2. STATE LEGISLATION REGULATING THE RAISING AND 
EXPENDITURE OF SCHOOL FUNDS 

Varieties of Financial Legislation. — In the course of the 
evolution of the school systems within the various states, leg- 
islation in regard to financial matters has been varied and 
extensive. A considerable part of the codified school law of 
the states deals with the raising and disbursements of funds. 
This legislation may be studied under several heads : {a) a. 
primitive stage affecting schools everywhere is that which 
permits or legalizes the action of local communities ; {d) leg- 
islation fixing maxima and minima in matters of taxation, repre- 
senting on the one hand the desire of the state to protect the 
local community, and on the other to hold the latter up to its 
obligations. Under this head may be studied the legislation 
which, without specifying amount to be raised, compels the 
district to provide certain types of facilities ; (c) laws deter- 
mining taxing bodies, and locating responsibility; (d) laws 
fixing the machinery for the distribution of funds ; and (e) 
laws controlling form of expenditure, under which head may 
be studied legal control of bond issues. 

a. Permissive Taxation. — Long before the state reaches 



The Financing of Public Education 151 

the stage where it may enforce the establishment of certain 
types of educational facility, it is importuned to permit pro- 
gressive communities to tax themselves for the new form of 
expenditure. An analysis of current laws shows that a wide 
range is permitted in powers of local taxation ; cities are con- 
ceded privileges in the establishment of evening schools, vo- 
cational schools, and playgrounds ; country districts are 
permitted to expend money for the transportation of pupils ; 
towns and districts are authorized to supply free text-books ; 
towns of certain size may provide expert supervision ; train- 
ing classes may be established ; libraries may be formed ; 
and numerous other kinds of local expenditure become au- 
thorized. In many states public secondary schools have 
first been established by permission extended to localities de- 
siring them. In time the establishment of high schools in 
certain types of districts may become compulsory, and the 
last stage is found when all school territory is attached to 
some high school district and is obliged to contribute to the 
support of secondary education. Similarly, in some states, 
the employment of superintendents is now authorized, but 
only in Massachusetts is every town compelled to sustain ex- 
pert supervision. Frequently the general and compulsory 
adoption of a free text-book system is preceded by a con- 
siderable period when communities are permitted to choose 
for themselves whether they will incur the added expense of 
buying all books used in the schools. It is evident that the 
wide prevalence of permissive legislation is characteristically 
American, the underlying idea being that the local commu- 
nity should, within certain limits, be permitted to do those 
things which seem good to it educationally. 

b. Prescriptive Taxation. — A second stage is found where 
legislation prescribes limits of taxation, or compels the per- 
formance of certain functions which involve expense. In 
many cases the law fixes a rate of state taxation or an amount 
which the state must raise. Of such a nature is the one-mill 
tax on all property prescribed by the laws of Virginia, Minne- 
sota, Maine, and Ohio among others ; the two-mill taxes of Il- 
linois, the one-and-a-half-mill tax of Tennessee, and the one- 



152 Educational Administration 

and-one-tenth-mill tax of Indiana, and the two-mill tax of 
New Mexico, limited to salary purposes. The constitution 
of Pennsylvania fixes the sum of ^1,000,000 as the minimum 
amount which the Assembly must annually levy. North 
Carolina requires that the state government appropriate, in 
addition to the interest on regular funds, the sum of ;^ 100,000 
annually among the counties, and an additional ^100,000, "or 
so much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appro- 
priated annually out of the state treasury for the purpose of 
bringing up the constitutional requirement of a four months' 
public school term in each district " which cannot otherwise 
raise enough money for that term. Of this nature, also, is 
the " sum of $7 for each census child between the ages of 
five and seventeen in the state," which must be raised by 
a property tax in California. In Missouri "the income (of 
all invested state funds), together with not less than twenty- 
five per cent of the state revenue, shall be applied annually to 
the support of public schools." The state of New Jersey 
provides for an annual appropriation of at least ^100,000 and 
in addition a state tax which shall make, " when added to the 
amount determined aforesaid, a sum equal to two and three- 
fourths mills on each dollar of valuation." For the aid of 
secondary education California provides a state tax of one 
and one-half cents on each hundred dollars of valuation, but 
which, after 1906, shall be " estimated by determining the 
amount at ^15 per pupil in average daily attendance" the 
preceding year. In addition to a state tax of one and twenty- 
three hundredths mills in Minnesota, of which one mill goes 
to the state schools and the remainder to the University, the 
law provides certain standing appropriations : for state aid to 
high schools, ;^2 1 7,000 annually ; for graded schools, ^79,000; 
(and for other types of schools, varying sums) ; and neces- 
sary expenses of high school board, and school inspectors, 
;?9500. 

Prescribed Minimum Rate. — The state may impose a 
fixed minimum on local communities. In Oregon each 
county is required to levy a tax on all property of such amount 
as will raise at least $'J for each person from four to twenty 



The Financing of Public Education 153 

years old in the county. In Connecticut towns are, under 
certain conditions, entitled to state assistance, but not until 
they shall have raised a tax of at least four mills locally. In 
California the county must raise such a sum as, added to the 
state appropriation, will make ^550 for each teacher (or group 
of seventy census children requiring one teacher). In Nevada 
where the state tax is large (six mills), the county must levy a 
tax of at least one and one-half mills and not exceeding five 
mills. In New Hampshire "the selectmen of each town shall 
assess annually upon the polls and ratable estate taxable 
therein, a sum to be computed at the rate of ^750 for every 
dollar of public taxes apportioned to such town ..." and " the 
town may raise an amount exceeding the aforesaid which 
shall be assessed in the same manner." The law of West 
Virginia provides that "for the support of primary free 
schools . . . the Board of Education (of each district) shall an- 
nually levy such a tax as will be sufficient to keep the schools 
in operation for five months in the year, provided that such 
tax does not exceed five mills." The County Board of South 
Carohna is obliged to levy a tax of three mills. In Maine 
each town must raise for school purposes " not less than 
eighty cents for each inhabitant, according to the census," 
" under penalty of forfeiting not less than twice nor more 
than four times the amount of its deficiency." In Ohio the 
local tax levy may not exceed twelve mills, " and in city school 
districts shall not be less than six mills." In New York the 
so-called Davis law fixes the rate for New York City at three 
mills, and special legislation has also provided Philadelphia 
with a fixed rate of taxation for school purposes. 

Prescribed Maximum. — The fixing of a maximum rate 
which local communities may not exceed is very common in 
state laws. Undoubtedly it has been the experience of some 
states, especially where district or town meetings are not in- 
fluential in fixing rates of taxation, that abuses have crept in 
and extravagance has resulted. It has already been noticed 
that with the development of legislation in the South following 
the Civil War, there was a strong disposition to protect local 
communities from the extravagance of propertyless voters. 



154 Educational Administration 

Laws of this nature are illustrated by the example of Indiana, 
which permits town trustees to levy special taxes, " but no 
tax shall exceed five mills on property and one dollar on poll" ; 
Ohio, where the "local tax levy for school purposes shall not 
exceed twelve mills on the dollar " ; Virginia, where the super- 
visors may levy a special school tax, but not to exceed two 
and a half mills ; Utah, where in regard to city taxation the 
law provides " that the tax for the support and maintenance 
of such schools shall not exceed in any one year six and one- 
half mills ... of which at least three mills shall not be used 
otherwise than for the payment of teachers ... " ; and in 
Minnesota, where — 

" In common school districts such district scliool tax shall not exceed 
fifteen mills on the dollar for the support of schools, or ten mills for the 
purchase of school sites and the erection and the equipment of school 
buildings ; but in such districts in which such ten-mill tax produces six 
hundred dollars, a greater tax may be levied for school sites and buildings, 
not to exceed twenty-five mills nor six hundred dollars." 

The General Assembly of Arkansas may levy a tax for the 
support of common schools " which shall never exceed in any 
one year two mills on the dollar " ; and the Assembly may 
authorize districts to vote taxes " not exceeding five mills." 
For the exclusive use of primary and grammar schools the 
General Assembly of Virginia may levy annually a tax of not 
less than one nor more than five mills ; and the supervisors of 
each county shall levy a tax of not less than seven and a 
half nor more than twenty cents (on the hundred dollars' valu- 
ation), and shall also levy a tax of not less than seven and a 
half nor more than twenty cents in each district for district 
school purposes ; and if this should not prove sufficient, the 
supervisors may permit a special election to be held in the 
district to vote additional taxes, which, however, must not 
bring the school tax rate above fifty cents on the hundred 
dollars. 

c. Taxing Authorities. — Owing to the increasing tendency 
of state law to fix minimum and maximum rates of taxation 
for school purposes, and the diminishing amount of option 
left to all but purely local bodies, the location of responsibility 



The Financing of Public Educatioji 155 

for taxation in county and state is relatively of less moment. 
Nevertheless, important powers are often exercised by the 
representatives of the people in determining, within the limits 
prescribed by law, whether schools shall be generously or nig- 
gardly supported. In districts, towns, and smaller munici- 
palities, the popular election still plays a large part 
in fixing the sums to be raised, and even in large cities it is 
rare to find bond issues for improvements effected otherwise 
than through popular vote. In New York the Board of Edu- 
cation of a union district may levy a tax sufficient for the 
salaries of teachers, if the public meeting fails or refuses to 
do so. Each board of education in Ohio fixes annually the 
rate of taxation necessary for school purposes, which, as noted 
before, may not exceed twelve mills, and which must be at least 
six mills in cities ; and the board may even issue bonds, under 
certain limitations. In Iowa nearly all powers of school tax- 
ation reside in town and district meetings, but boards of edu- 
cation may certify certain amounts for specified purposes 
v/ithout the vote of the district. For example, $5 per 
school child for transportation, a sum for free text-books, 
and ^15 per school child for teachers' fund, which sums 
certified to the Board of Supervisors, must by them be in- 
cluded in the tax levy. School directors in each district in 
Pennsylvania are empowered to levy taxes, both for current 
expenses and for building purposes, subject to limitations. 
They must provide enough for at least four and not more 
than ten months of school, and the maximum levy is fixed by 
law. In many states where the functions of county govern- 
ment are extensive, the powers of voting taxes are largely 
withdrawn from the districts, except in the matter of providing 
for permanent improvements. In other words, in cities and 
states where representative government tends to grow, the 
power to levy taxes marks the final distinction between 
purely popular and purely representative government ; and, 
as before noted, in South and West, especially, the conditions 
do not favor town-meeting government. Popular will is exer- 
cised through control of representatives. 

d. Basis of Distribution. — When the state has funds to 



156 Educational Administration 

distribute for the support of schools, or when, similarly, the 
county distributes money among the towns or districts, the 
method of distribution has a very important bearing on the 
provision of school facilities. Communities vary greatly in 
their ability to pay taxes as related to their educational needs. 
Large cities, for example, frequently have a high per capita 
wealth, while rural communities not infrequently have a small 
per capita wealth, yet in the latter the number of children 
to be educated in proportion to population may be in excess 
of the former. In rural districts, even where the per capita 
wealth may be equal, the numbers of children may vary con- 
siderably, all of whom, in each case, however, can be taught 
by one teacher. It costs nearly as much to conduct a school 
in a district with ten children as in one with forty-five. 
Hence, if county and state pay over to districts amounts of 
money proportional to what they raise, the large districts with 
a low per capita wealth will be at a relative disadvantage, as 
will also districts with little wealth and few children to be 
educated, who will, however, take the full time of a teacher. 
Since the amount of school money raised in many states by 
the state or by the county is large, the methods of distributing 
this money come to be of great importance. 

The First Method of Distribution is that found in counties 
where educational administration is highly centralized, and 
where the governing board is authorized to distribute county 
moneys to the districts, according to the option of such boards. 
By the County School Board of Virginia " the county school 
fund shall be apportioned among the several districts of the 
county, according to its judgment, having due regard to 
maintaining as far as practicable, a uniform term throughout 
all of the districts," and providing that a term of four months 
be maintained for all primary and grammar schools before funds 
may be used for the establishment of schools of a higher grade. 
The complete control over the schools of the Louisiana 
parish (the equivalent of the county) by the parish board is, 
in effect, the same as giving that body powers of distributing 
school moneys at will among the districts, which here have 
trustees (auxiliary trustees) only if the parish board deem 



The Financing of Ptiblic Education 157 

it desirable. In Georgia, the County Board is vested with 
complete control (though it may create subdistricts and 
appoint trustees thereto) and regulates salaries, terms of 
school, etc., subject, however, to the proviso that "they shall, 
as far as practicable, provide the same facilities for both 
races in respect to attainments and abilities of teachers, and 
length of term time." In Mississippi, except in separate 
school districts, the County Board and County Superintendent 
exercise similar control over salaries, terms, etc., and thus 
practically effect the distribution of funds. 

The Second Method of Distribution, and one characterizing 
primitive educational conditions, is for the state or the county 
to return to the school area exactly its share of taxes relative 
to its taxable valuation. In this case the state or the county 
becomes simply the taxing body, but no districts profit or 
lose by this centralization. The advantage of the system is 
that it unifies taxation and compels unwilling districts to raise 
at least a moderate amount for education. Where permission 
to add by local tax to this sum exists, rich and ambitious dis- 
tricts at least do not suffer. As a rule, this form of distribu- 
tion belongs to the earlier stages of the development of state 
funds raised by taxation, though whenever a change in exist- 
ing schemes of distribution is proposed, there is always con- 
siderable pressure on the part of wealthy cities for some 
form of material recognition of the contention that their 
larger payments somehow entitle them to larger returns. In 
Tennessee the state imposes upon each county a compulsory 
school tax of one and a half mills, which is collected and 
turned over in exactly the amount raised. The same is true 
of a compulsory poll tax of one dollar. In Pennsylvania 
" one-third of (the state money) shall be distributed on the 
basis of the number of teachers employed for the full annual 
term of the district, . . . one-third on the basis of the number 
of children of school age, . . . and one-third on the basis of 
the number of taxables." The state school tax of New Jersey, 
as already noted, is ^100,000, plus such a tax as will bring 
the rate for school purposes up to two and three-fourths mills 
on valuation ; the product of this tax " the State Comptroller 



158 Educational Administration 

shall apportion among the several counties in proportion to 
the amount of taxable real and personal estate of said counties 
respectively." This is, in effect, a compulsory tax on valuation 
within the counties, except as to the sum of ^100,000 or more, 
vi^hich the legislature must levy, and which serves to equal- 
ize the local burden. ^ 

A Third Method of Distributing state or county funds is the 
very common one of taking as the basis of educational need 
either total population or school population, the latter meaning 
the number of children supposedly in need of schooling. The 
method of distributing funds according to total population is 
Httle used, largely owing to the greater convenience and satis- 
faction of taking the census only of school children and, per- 
haps, owing to a vague notion that the number of school 
children is a more reliable basis than total population.^ If 
states are tempted to use the national census as a basis, it is 
found that changes in population take place rapidly in some 
sections, and the need of a more frequent census becomes 
apparent. Hence in a large number of states the so-called 
school census basis is used in distributing school money to 
the counties, and frequently by the counties to districts or 
towns. Sometimes state funds are distributed among the 
counties on the basis of their school census population and by 
the counties to the districts on the same basis ; or the counties, 
receiving the state funds, distribute them on some other basis. 
The school census basis of apportionment works out peculiar 
results in the case of the rural district, since the expense of 
the single teacher to the rural school is, or ought to be, sub- 
stantially the same, whether the number of children in the 
district is large or small, so long as they can well be taught 
by one teacher. But where counties distribute money to rural 
districts in proportion to number of children, a district with 
ten children will receive only one-fourth as much as a district 
with forty children. The consequence is that, within the 
county, this method of distributing funds fails manifestly to 
secure equality of educational opportunity. Again, where 

1 As found before the legislation of 1908. 

2 Cubberley, School Funds and their Apportionment, pp. 94 et seq. 



The Financing of Public Education 159 

counties vary considerably in the relative number of rural 
districts they contain, the system of state distribution among 
counties on the census basis also tends to produce considerable 
inequalities. That county which has a large number of its 
children in village or city schools, obliged to employ not more 
than one teacher for each forty or forty-five children in at- 
tendance, will receive proportionately to number of teachers 
employed a much larger sum than is received by a county 
with a large number of its children in rural schools requiring 
teachers for each group of ten, fifteen, or twenty children. 
Notwithstanding this inequality, all of the North Central 
states except Indiana and Nebraska distribute their large state 
funds, both from state to county and from county to town or 
district on the strict census basis.^ The consolidation of 
schools, of course, tends to remove the inequality, for, apart 
from the small rural school, the census basis of apportionment 
serves its primary purpose fairly well. 

To Correct the Inequalities of the school census method, 
various devices are employed by a few states. In Indiana 
the state fund is distributed among the counties on the census 
basis, but the county auditor, in apportioning this among the 
cities, towns, and townships " shall ascertain the amount of 
Congressional township school revenue belonging to each city, 
town, or township, and shall apportion the other school rev- 
enue for tuition to each city, town, and township according to 
the enumeration of children therein." In Oregon the funds 
raised in the counties (there is no state tax) are distributed 
on the census basis after a quota of $50 is allowed to each 
district and ^5 for each teacher who has attended institute. 
In Nebraska the state distributes funds to counties on 
census basis, and within the counties, after adding what- 
ever county school fund is available, the entire amount is dis- 
tributed as follows : " One-fourth of the whole amount to be 
distributed equally to the several districts in the county, and 
the remaining three-fourths " to be distributed on census basis. 
In Nevada a teacher quota is established of seventy-five 
census children or fraction thereof, and thus the total number 

1 Cubberley, loc. cit., p. 125. 



i6o Educational Administration 

of teachers supposed to be required by the district or county 
is ascertained. Then forty per cent of all state and county 
money is distributed to the districts on the basis of the num- 
ber of teachers, and the remainder on the census basis. This 
device, of course, especially helps the small rural districts. 
The California system provides for a teacher quota of seventy 
census children (or any number between that and fifteen in 
rural districts), and the state fund is distributed to the 
counties on the basis of 1^250 for each teacher on the teacher 
quota basis, and the remainder on the basis of average 
daily attendance during the preceding year in the various 
schools of the state. Within the county enough must be 
raised by local taxation to make ^550 for each teacher quota; 
after this is distributed to the districts, the remainder is 
distributed on basis of average daily attendance. 

Other Bases of Distribution are school enrolment or average 
attendance. The latter, it will be noticed, is partly employed 
in California. New Hampshire provides an " equalization 
fund " for poorer districts, which is distributed " in direct pro- 
portion to said average attendance and in inverse proportion 
to the equalized valuation per child [below three thousand 
dollars]." The " state literary fund " of the same state is 
apportioned among the towns in proportion to the number of 
" children of at least five years who have attended not less 
than two weeks." In Minnesota, both from state to county and 
from county to district, funds are apportioned on the basis of 
school enrolment, but no pupil may be counted more than 
once, and not unless he has attended school at least forty days 
in the year. But Minnesota provides, also, some forms of 
special aid for certain types of districts, including rural 
schools. Arizona requires the appropriation of ^400 to each 
district having from ten to twenty census children, and ^500 
for each district having more than twenty children. In 
addition, ^20 must be appropriated for each child in average 
daily attendance in excess of twenty-five. The constitution 
of Florida provides that apportionment of state school funds 
shall be " in proportion to the average attendance upon such 
schools." 



The Financing of Public Education i6i 

Complicated Methods of Distribution. — In all cases hitherto 
discussed, the attempt has been to find a relatively simple 
basis of distribution in proportion to need or local contribu- 
tion. It is true that apportionment based on enrolment or 
average daily attendance does, to some extent, put a premium 
on local efforts to get the children into school. But a few- 
states have endeavored to work out a more complex basis of 
distribution which should distinctly recognize local efforts. 
The excellence of a school, educationally considered, is found 
not merely or largely in the number of children enrolled, but 
in the number of days' attendance made in all. In Washing- 
ton the state fund is distributed among the counties in propor- 
tion to the total number of days' attendance, with a proviso 
that each district shall be credited with two thousand days' at- 
tendance. The county distributes to the district on the same 
basis. For certain districts in Vermont the town is required 
to divide the state funds in proportion to the number of legal 
schools, but any remaining funds in proportion to aggregate 
attendance. A portion of the funds not otherwise distributed 
is also, in New York and New Jersey, apportioned on the 
basis of aggregate attendance. It will be noted that these 
schemes put a premium both on length of term and on num- 
ber of children brought into the school and made to attend 
regularly. 

Other Schemes of Apportioning either state or county funds 
have been incidentally referred to above. Not only in Oregon 
and Arizona is there provision made for a preliminary " district 
quota" before other bases of distribution are employed, but 
also in Wyoming (where ^i 50 goes to each district), Nebraska, 
(one-fourth of all county money first divided equally among 
all districts), and Idaho (where one-third is so divided). ^ In 
several states certain funds are apportioned for each teacher 
employed, on the assumption that the teacher's salary is the 
largest and most necessary item of expense. The teacher 
quota of ^550 in California is an example of this, though only 
the state fund is definitely earmarked for teacher's salary. 
The New Jersey law obliges the County Superintendent, in 

1 Cubberley, loc. cit., p. 177. 
M 



1 62 Educational Administration 

making his distribution, to set apart $200 for every teacher 
employed for full time. In Pennsylvania " one-third of the 
money annually appropriated for common schools in this 
Commonwealth shall be distributed on the basis of the num- 
ber of paid teachers regularly employed for the full annual 
term of the district." The state fund of New York is first 
drawn upon to provide for supervision and library purposes 
and a small contingent fund, after which " he [Superintendent 
of Public Instruction] shall apportion to each district having 
an assessed valuation of ^40,000 or less, $ 1 50, and to remaining 
districts and cities ^125," and for each teacher additional to 
the first in all districts, ^100, the remainder being apportioned 
on basis of population. In Delaware the state fund is divided 
among the counties in proportion to number of teachers. 

Special Attempts at Equalization. — Attention has already 
been called to attempts, in the distribution of funds, to equalize 
educational opportunities in districts where property valuation 
is unusually low. New Hampshire attains this end by a grant 
increasing in proportion to number of children in average 
attendance, and inversely as equalized valuation below ^3000 
per school child. In Connecticut "every town having a valu- 
ation of less than ;^5oo,ooo may annually receive from the 
treasurer of the state ... a sum which will enable the town 
to spend for the support of public schools twenty-five dollars 
for each child in average attendance." In Maine, in certain 
unorganized townships, if the regular tax is not " sufficient to 
provide schooling for at least twenty weeks in the year," the 
remainder of the expense shall be met from a state fund. A 
new law of 1905 in Indiana provides for the creation of a special 
fund to aid those towns which, after taxing themselves to the 
limit, find that they have insufficient money for teachers' 
salaries. The State Superintendent exercises final authority 
in its distribution. In the directions for the distribution of 
the Massachusetts state fund, it is provided that " every town 
whose valuation does not exceed one-half million dollars shall 
annually receive $500, but if its rate of taxation for any year 
shall be ^18 or more on the thousand, it shall receive ^75 
additional." Towns with higher valuation receive less of this 



The Financing of Public Education 163 

fund, so, in a sense, it is an equalizing fund. But to receive 
this aid a town must have maintained a school for thirty- 
six weeks, and must have complied with numerous other con- 
ditions. Ohio, in providing for a minimum salary law of ^40, 
found that many districts could not pay that amount a month 
for eight months in the year, so state aid is given to the ex- 
tent of making up any deficiency which remains after the dis- 
trict has taxed itself to the limit allowed by law, and has 
reserved three-fourths of the money so raised for teachers' 
salaries. In South Carolina the net income to the state from 
the sale of liquors " shall be apportioned among the various 
counties in proportion to the deficiencies existing after the 
application of the three-mill tax and the poll-tax to maintain 
schools for the time fixed " by law. In North Carolina the 
state provides a fund to bring the term of all districts up to 
the constitutional minimum of four months' school. 

Penalizing. — On the other hand, it is common to penalize 
districts for failure to maintain a certain length of school term 
by withholding the state funds. In this way the state makes 
an attempt to control local effort, but usually the standards 
the state is able to set are low. A curious reversal from this 
penalizing is found in an act passed in 1907 in Florida : " Every 
public school in this state maintaining an average daily attend- 
ance of eighty per cent during the regular term shall receive 
aid from the state in a sum sufficient in each case to maintain 
school for two months in addition to the regular term of such 
school." 

Aid to Special Schools. — A form of state aid which is, in 
effect, the term of putting of a premium on certain kinds of 
local effort is found in the practice of allowing subsidies for 
special types of education. Evening schools, parental schools, 
vacation schools, classes for the deaf, kindergartens, manual 
training classes, and agricultural classes are so recognized in 
different states.^ In the distribution of the parliamentary 
grant in England, it may be noted that most of the special 
lines come in for an exceptionally large amount, thus tending 
to put a decided premium on their local development. But, 

1 See Cubberley, loc. cit.. Chap. XV. 



164 Educational Administration 

except in the case of states giving recognition to cities, the 
development in American states is quite meagre, thus far. In 
California the state provides the usual teacher quota (^550, 
part of which must be raised by the county) for each nine deaf 
children on the census list. In New Jersey, Wisconsin, and 
Kansas manual training receives special recognition. Even- 
ing schools get state aid in Connecticut and New Jersey. 
New York, New Jersey, and the New England states provide 
subsidies for the employment of expert supervision. Some 
Southern states also provide loans for buildings, which serve 
as subsidies. 

Aid to Secondary Schools. — Only within very recent years 
has it become customary to provide state aid for secondary 
schools, and even yet only a few provide a material amount of 
financial assistance. At intervals throughout the history of 
some of the states private secondary education has been 
subsidized,^ and many of the states long ago legalized the 
formation of high schools under local support. The state 
aid now given to high schools takes the form of a series of sub- 
sidies in Washington, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, 
Rhode Island, and Maine. Minnesota makes an outright grant 
of ^217,000 to be divided among high schools, restricting the 
amount to any one school to ^1500, and limiting the number in 
any one county to nine dollars. In Maine each school receives, 
up to ^250, an amount equal to the amount raised locally and ex- 
pended for instruction. CaHf ornia levies a special high school 
tax of one and one-half cents on the hundred dollars for a high 
school fund ; and of the fund so raised, one-third is distributed 
in equal proportions among all high schools, and the remain- 
ing two-thirds on the basis of average daily attendance the 
preceding year. The school, in order to receive its apportion- 
ment, must meet certain easy conditions as to number of 
teachers, length of term, etc. 

e. Other Forms of Legislative Control are found in the 
almost universal state laws regulating bond issues for school 
purposes, and the quite general specifications as to uses of 
funds. We have already seen numerous cases of the desig- 

1 Jones, State Aid to Secondary Schools. 



The Financing of Public Education 165 

nation of the state fund to salary, text-books, and library- 
purposes. Not infrequently legislative restrictions exist as 
to the amount which may be spent in a particular field, as for 
supplies, library, etc. Sometimes this affects the salaries 
that may be paid, as in Mississippi where the County Super- 
intendent receives three per cent of school funds received 
annually by the county, but he " shall not receive more than 
six hundred nor less than one hundred and fifty dollars per 
annum." In the same state " the salaries for teachers in 
schools of one teacher shall be fixed by the county superin- 
tendent, between the following limits : for a third grade 
teacher, between fifteen and twenty dollars ; for a second 
grade teacher, between eighteen and thirty dollars ; and for 
a first grade teacher, between twenty-five and fifty dollars." 
The minimum salary laws of Ohio (^40) of Indiana (practi- 
cally ^40, but partly dependent upon the grade in exami- 
nation), and of West Virginia (first grade, $30 ; second grade, 
^25; third grade, ^18) are examples. In Maine and Mas- 
sachusetts the minimum salary of the local superintendent 
and in most counties the compensation of county superin- 
tendent and members of the Board of Education are fixed by 
law. In California there is a provision that county school 
money may not be used for current expenses, except salaries 
and necessary supplies, unless school has been maintained 
eight months. In several states the amount that may be 
spent on conveyance of pupils is limited. 



3. PROBLEMS OF FINANCE IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 

Several large problems of educational finance are con- 
stantly claiming the attention of students of American edu- 
cation. Little can be done here except to formulate them 
and to call attention to certain aspects of more than usual 
interest. These are : {a) possible sources of increased rev- 
enue, as education becomes more expensive ; {b) the relative 
proportion and kinds of school revenue which various taxing 
units should produce ; {c) the distribution of state revenue 



1 66 Educational Administration 

to counties, and the distribution of county funds to lesser 
units. 

a. Sources of Increased Revenue. ■ — It has already been 
pointed out (p. 144) that the expenditure in American states 
on education has grown during the last forty years more 
rapidly than population, and somewhat more rapidly than 
per capita wealth. Not only is this true of outlay for edu- 
cation, but it is also true in other channels of public ex- 
penditure. In short, the fields of state and public action are 
increasing, as every student of social conditions knows, and 
the cost of administration is increasing proportionately. The 
share of public money demanded by education, however, is 
so large that the administrator is peculiarly concerned with 
changes in the system of taxation which make the burdens 
more easily borne. So far, the taxation of private property 
has been the chief source of revenue of American states 
and localities. In the Southern states a variety of fines, 
licenses, and poll taxes have contributed to the support of 
schools. Inheritance taxes have been made considerable 
sources of revenue in some cases. Special tax commissions 
in New York and Pennsylvania have wrought extensive 
changes to the extent, at least, of largely relieving real 
property from the burden of state taxation. It is the belief 
of many students that some forms of indirect taxation like 
corporation and franchise taxes, should be developed within 
all the states, for the sake of taking from real property, 
to some extent, the burdens now put upon it. This may be 
of greater importance in proportion as the state assumes a 
larger share in the raising of the school revenue as it will 
undoubtedly tend to do in time. 

b. Territorial Distribution of Tax Burdens. — The advan- 
tage of large over small units of taxation are two : {(i) giving 
greater uniformity and stability to the supply of revenue ; and 
{b) the equalization of educational opportunities throughout 
the larger unit irrespective of local ability to pay taxes, by 
distributing revenues in proportion to educational needs. 
But in all discussions of the expediency and social soundness 
of raising school money in larger units, it has seldom been 



The Financing of Public Education 167 

urged that the local community should be entirely relieved of 
responsibility. At present this is only possible, and that not 
uniformly, in some of the Southern states with county school 
administration as the chief source of authority. Except for 
certain forms of higher education, the national government 
does not serve as a taxing body for school purposes, but it 
has been shown that the relative per capita valuation of 
different states varies greatly, and at times it has been claimed 
that a national fund should be provided to aid those states 
which, like the Southern states after the Civil War, have been 
absolutely too poor to provide good educational facilities. 
In other words, if for the good of the commonwealth the 
state should tax itself and distribute the revenues with refer- 
ence to local needs, so, it is argued, should the nation, which , 
is only a larger expression of the state. This question as- 
sumes new interest with the growing demands for industrial 
education and the increasing mobility of labor, since states will, 
possibly like smaller localities, develop increasing reluctance 
to tax themselves for the support of expensive forms of indus- 
trial education if they see the trained men and women, the 
results of that training, drift regularly away to other states. 

State Institutions. — Notice must be taken of the fact 
that many new types of education at once make demands 
upon the state as a whole. State universities, normal 
schools, state schools for dependent, delinquent, and defec- 
tive children, and state industrial schools come within this 
category. Of necessity the entire state becomes the taxing 
unit for their support. 

Tendencies. — Undoubtedly, as the cost of education in- 
creases, much of the expense will be borne by the larger 
rather than the smaller units. The national government now 
supports varieties of agricultural and mechanic arts educa- 
tion ; it is being asked to develop local agricultural schools 
of a secondary grade, and to provide for the training of 
teachers of agricultural arts and science. The actual con- 
tributions of the various states increase, and the development 
of county control and township and consolidated districts 
means the enlargement of the taxing unit. This seems in- 



1 68 Educational Administration 

evitable, in view of these facts : (d) the more satisfactory 
administration of fiscal matters in the larger unit ; ib) the 
increasing mobility of populations, causing the larger rather 
than the local units to experience the benefits of education ; 
and {c) the increasing heterogeneousness of the community 
as regards the distribution of wealth, which, coupled with 
the growing tendency to appreciate the obligation of the 
state to offer equal educational opportunities to all, makes 
only the larger unit feasible. 

But no system which fails to put also a premium on purely 
local effort will finally suffice. In many cases it may be that 
responsibility for material equipment of buildings and furniture 
and cost of plant maintenance will be sufficient burden ; but 
even this the state will have the right to bring up to effective 
standards. 

c. The Basis of the Distribution of State Funds to locali- 
ties and of county or township funds to schools has 
always been a problem of importance. Especially where 
the relative amounts raised by the state and county are 
large, does it become of supreme importance to so disburse 
this as to produce the maximum of educational result. 
We have already seen examples of the primitive tendency 
to have localities receive back from the state an amount 
proportioned to the amounts they have paid in taxes. Since 
this takes no account of local educational need, and, in fact, 
gives the largest returns to the localities able to raise the 
largest local tax, it has been recognized as out of harmony 
with the working of a true state system of education. In 
the great majority of states it has been replaced by the 
census, or average attendance, or gross attendance, basis of 
distribution. The plan of distributing money according to 
the number of children, whether in the area or actually in 
school, has proven fairly acceptable except, as has been 
noted, in the case of the varying sized rural districts each 
of which requires one teacher. Various attempts to adjust 
this have been made of which the California system is 
probably the most effective. 

But there is a widespread feeling among educators and 



The Financing of Public Education 169 

others that the state should use its funds not merely to 
equalize educational opportunities, but also to stimulate 
local effort. We have already noted that the enrolment 
basis or the average attendance basis tends to put a pre- 
mium on attendance at school, as does the Florida system 
of giving additional aid to schools making eighty per cent of 
average daily attendance. The Washington system of dis- 
tributing money on aggregate attendance stimulates length 
of attendance and length of term. But all of these affect 
only certain factors of educational well-being. From the 
standpoint of the state, educational excellence, as found in 
any community, is a very complex thing. It is made up 
partly of the relative number of children who can be in- 
duced to come to school, and of the regularity and persist- 
ency of that attendance, and of the length of school year 
maintained. But other factors enter in : the grade of cer- 
tificate held by the teacher, the salary paid, the stability 
of the teacher's position, the character of supervision, the 
number of teachers in relation to the number of pupils, 
the length of the school day, the character of the school 
building and material equipment, the degree to which consoli- 
dation and transportation replace the isolated district, the 
excellence of the upper grade work, the character of the 
text-books supplied, and many other elements. Further- 
more, the progressiveness of the locality in providing edu- 
cational facilities of a modern kind, as instruction in agri- 
culture, manual training, domestic work, and the like, may 
seem to deserve not merely recognition but aid. 

It will be recalled that probably the most extended and 
heroic attempt to realize this end occurred in England 
during the years when a part of the parliamentary grant 
was distributed to schools, public and private, on the basis 
of "results," as these appeared in examinations. It was 
believed that excellence of teaching management as well as 
ability to secure regular attendance could be measured best 
by testing the actual educational benefits realized by the 
children. An elaborate system of examinations, not at all 
uncongenial to the English educational spirit, grew up, and 



ijo Educational Administration 

"payment by results " became a current phrase. Although 
the system probably accomplished much good for a time, it 
finally fell into disrepute, and the parliamentary grant (which 
at present exceeds the amount raised for education by local 
taxation) is now distributed mainly on the basis of attendance, 
and in less degree on the basis of special types of studies 
maintained, like manual training, cooking, etc. Certain types 
of technical work are still rewarded on the examination basis. 
In addition, however, the general standard of national educa- 
tion is maintained by a system of inspection, and schools fall- 
ing below certain detailed standards set by the national Board 
of Education are deprived of their share of the national grant. 
This system of inspection imposes exacting conditions as to 
certificates of teachers, length of term, character of buildings 
and equipment, and other factors of educational excellence. 

It would seem that, owing to the many factors which enter 
into the making of an effective school system, and the diffi- 
culty of providing for these by general legislation, it will 
prove difficult to utilize the distribution of funds as a means 
of raising educational standards, without the development of 
a state system of inspection. This, at present, is in its in- 
fancy so far as our non-urban education is concerned. It may 
be that beginnings of inspection, provided in Massachusetts, 
New York, Wisconsin, and Minnesota (where a provision has 
lately been made for a special inspector of rural schools), 
indicate further developments in this field. Certainly existing 
systems of inspection by locally elected officials are insufficient 
to meet this need. Definite legal provisions providing for 
the encouragement of local effort soon reach their limit. Fix- 
ing the minimum of taxation to be met before state aid can 
be rendered, or the term of school to be supplied locally, or 
even the salaries and the number of teachers, can only bring 
pressure to bear on the poorest districts and counties. State 
aid for special features of excellence, as the provision of new 
forms of education, the decrease in relative number of pupils 
per teacher, the increase in the salaries of teachers, and the 
provision of supervision can only be effective with close in- 
spection from without. To leave the form of distribution to 



The Financing of Public Education 171 

the discretion of officials, as in townships and some Southern 
counties, is not possible in the larger areas, without system- 
atic and professional inspection. 



REFERENCES 

Black, S. T. The California System of School Maintenance, Proc. 
N. E. A. 1897:505. — Bowman, H. M. The Administration of Iowa. 
New York 1903. — Buffum, H. S. Federal and State Aid to Education in 
Iowa (Univ. of Iowa) . — Cubberley, E. P. School Funds and their Appor- 
tionment. New York, 1905. — Dyke, C. B. The Economic Aspects of 
Teachers' Salaries. New York. — Eliot, C. W. More Money for the Public 
Schools. New York, 1904. — Elliott, E. C. Some Fiscal Aspects of Educa- 
tion. New York, 1905. — Fellow, H. C. A Study of School Supervision and 
Maintenance. Topeka, 1896. — Harris, W. T. ""The PoHtical Economy 
of School Finances, Ed. Rev. 29:486. — Jones, D. R. State Aid to 
Secondary Schools. Berkeley, 1903. — Lane, A. G. Taxation and 
Teachers' Salaries, Proc. N. E. A. 1902:323. — Mayo, A. D. Original 
Establishment of Public School Funds. U. S. Com. of Ed. Rep. 1 894-1 895 : 
1513. — Prince, John T. School Administration, Appendix D. Syracuse, 
1906. — Rawles, W. A. Centralizing Tendencies in Indiana. New York, 
1903. — Rowe, L. S. Educational Finances, Ann. of Am. Acad. 14 : 186. — 
Schaefifer, N. Taxation for School Purposes, Proc. N. E. A. 1902:314. 
— Seaver, Ed. P. Expenditure for Public Schools, Ed. Rev. 25 :475. — 
Strayer, Geo. D. City School Expenditure. New York, 1905. — Swain, J. 
State Aid to Higher Education, Proc. N. E. A. 1900: 457. — Webster, 
W. C. Recent Centralizing Tendencies in Educational Administration. 
New York, 1897. (See also Ed. Rev. 13:23, 134.) — Com. of Ed. The 
Justification of the Public High School, Rep. 1900: 629. — N. E. A. Report 
of Com. on Taxation as related to Public Education. Chicago, 1905. 



CHAPTER XI 

The Schoolhouse: its Construction and Adaptation 

Evolution of the American Schoolhouse, — The schoolhouse 
is one of the best expressions of American civic life. It is 
often a very good measure of the public spirit and civic pride 
of the community. It is a far cry from the little red school- 
house standing on a site so stony that the land thus occupied 
is of no value whatever, with its small windows, its plain hard 
benches, and its red-hot stove, to the large, palatial structures 
which are to be seen in nearly all our cities and growing 
towns. The schoolhouse has had an evolution which has 
been influenced by increasing standards of knowledge and in- 
telligence concerning hygiene and sanitation, the growing 
ability of the tax-paying population to make larger contribu- 
tions for such purposes, and the ambition and pride of the peo- 
ple in making their schools equal to the best. 

The New Architecture. — It would be somewhat difficult to 
state how it has come to pass that during the past twenty- 
five years we have developed a type of American schoolhouse 
which is not only superb and impressive in its style, but is 
remarkably well adapted to various grades of schools. Very 
few school buildings erected prior to the last quarter of a cen- 
tury are habitable to-day without important improvements. 
The reader of this statement will think at once of some mon- 
umental edifices that were built even longer ago that are still 
considered by some as worthy of attention. Among such is 
Girard College in Philadelphia, which for a long time was one 
of the attractions of that city. It is indeed a splendid monu- 
ment to the memory of a gentleman who set a noble example 
of generous giving for education, but the original edifice is as 
unlike the modern schoolhouse as are the Pyramids of Egypt 

172 



The Schoolhouse lyT, 

or the Pantheon at Rome. It may be said in explanation of 
what has been achieved that we have developed in America a 
school of architects who, while familiar with the best ideals of 
ancient and modern architecture abroad, have shown their 
abiUty to recognize new conditions and new demands and to 
design buildings admirably adapted for every form of Ameri- 
can life and enterprise. This power of conception and exe- 
cution in the building hne attained a real self-consciousness 
in the great work of the Chicago Exhibition. The same new 
genius and flexibility of creative power manifested itself at St. 
Louis, Buffalo, Portland, and Jamestown. Nothing in archi- 
tecture at the present moment is more remarkable than some 
of the recent sky-scrapers in New York which compel the ad- 
miration of foreign visitors who have never seen or dreamt of 
anything like them. So in the mill construction so universally 
adopted we see a simplicity and fitness together with provision 
for hght, ventilation, and comfort which are not surpassed in 
any other line of construction. The modern church, the office 
building, the apartment house, the private residence, the rail- 
way station, and the seaside cottage are all manifestations of 
the new architecture and its success in meeting varying con- 
ditions. It is most fortunate that some of the more compe- 
tent men, like Richardson, in Massachusetts, and Snyder, in 
New York, have turned their attention to schoolhouse archi- 
tecture and have sought to develop such a style as would per- 
mit the highest perfection in economy, convenience, and adap- 
tation to educational needs. 

Health Conditions. — Another factor which has favored 
rapid advancement in schoolhouse architecture has been the 
discoveries made by science and the medical profession con- 
cerning the importance of health conditions as affected by 
fresh air, light, freedom from dust, and good sanitation. 
These are the fundamental things which determine whether a 
schoolhouse is fit for occupancy or not. The modern archi- 
tect must keep all of these conditions in mind during every 
part of his planning, and has continually to design his build- 
ing so that these requirements of health, comfort, and con- 
venience may be fully met. 



1 74 Educational Administration 

Another most beneficent influence has been the demand of 
expert superintendents and teachers for better plant and 
equipment for educational work. Few architects, unless they 
have had large experience, are able to design a schoolhouse 
without the aid of experienced school officers, who know best 
how a given amount of space can be divided and assigned to 
the various needs of the school. Thus we find that the archi- 
tect, the health officer, and the educator have worked to- 
gether to produce the admirable buildings to be seen almost 
everywhere. This corresponds to the method which has long 
been in vogue in certain parts of Europe. The writer re- 
members visiting some years ago a new schoolhouse in 
Gothenberg, Sweden, and finding that the school desks and 
other appointments for hygiene had been decided upon by a 
joint committee consisting of the school inspector, the health 
officer of the city, and a reputable physician. No doubt we 
have yet much to learn, for a high school house of to-day is 
almost as complex, with its heating and ventilating apparatus, 
its laboratory system, and its means of intercommunication, as 
the ocean steamship. 

Rural Schools. — Much progress has been made in discov- 
ering types of buildings well adapted to the needs of rural 
schools. As one-third, at least, of the school children of the 
country attend such schools, this is a much-needed advance 
inasmuch as the small schools throughout the country have 
been so inhospitable in their appearance and arrangement. 
Buildings containing from one to four rooms are now con- 
structed and equipped with as much attention to ventilation, 
lighting, and comfort as is given in urban sections- 
Village Schools. — Village schools, also, with pleasing design 
and attractive surroundings are coming to fill a larger place 
in the esteem and appreciation of the people. The rapid 
growth of electric traction has greatly facilitated the consoli- 
dation of the smaller outlying schools into the central village 
or town school. Where there are no trolley cars, transporta- 
tion of pupils is provided in a systematic and painstaking way 
so that the child on the distant farm has the advantage of at- 
tending practically an urban school. This phase of educa- 



The Schoolhouse 175 

tional development, which will be treated more at length in 
another chapter, is seen to great advantage in many states 
and is likely to become still more universal. 

Legislation Needed. — But these pleasant pictures of prog- 
ress attained in providing better school accommodations has 
its complementary shadow, for in many cases public spirit has 
not asserted itself, and schoolhouses are quite unfit to be the 
homes of children during a large portion of their waking 
hours. Only a few states have as yet passed laws compelling 
school boards to conform to those standards which are gener- 
ally approved. Several years ago Massachusetts passed a 
statute requiring thirty cubic feet of air space for each child. 
This excellent law has been a great boon to the children of 
that commonwealth, and has exerted a wide influence upon 
school boards and heating engineers in other states, but in few 
of them have similar laws been enacted. The state of New 
York has amended its school law relative to proper sanitation 
and ventilation as follows : — 

The New York Law. — " No schoolhouse shall hereafter be erected in 
anycity of the third class or in any incorporated village or school district of 
this state, and no addition to a school building in any such place shall here- 
after be erected, the cost of which shall exceed five hundred dollars, until 
the plans and specifications for the same shall have been submitted to the 
Commissioner of Education and his approval indorsed thereon. Such plans 
and specifications shall show in detail the ventilation, heating, and lighting of 
such buildings. Such Commissioner of Education shall not approve anyplans 
for the erection of any school building or addition thereto unless the same 
shall provide at least fifteen square feet of floor space and two hundred 
cubic feet of air space for each pupil to be accommodated in each study or 
recitation room therein, and no such plans shall be approved by him unless 
provision is made therein for assuring at least thirty feet of pure air every 
minute for each pupil, and the facilities for exhausting the foul or vitiated 
air therein shall be positive and independent of atmospheric changes. No 
tax voted by a district meeting or other competent authority in any such 
city, village, or school district, exceeding the sum of five hundred dollars, 
shall be levied by the trustees until the Commissioner of Education shall 
certify that the plans and specifications for the same comply with the pro- 
visions of this act. All schoolhouses for which plans and detailed state- 
ments shall be filed and approved, as required by this act, shall have all 
halls, doors, stairways, seats, passageways, and aisles, and all lighting and 
heating appliances and apparatus arranged to facilitate egress in cases of 



176 Educational Administration 

fire or accident, and to afford the requisite and proper accommodations for 
public protection in such cases. All exit doors shall open outwardly, and 
shall, if double doors be used, fasten with movable bolts operated si- 
multaneously by one handle from the inner face of the door. No 
staircase shall be constructed with wider steps in lieu of a platform, but 
shall be constructed with straight runs, changes in direction being made by 
platforms. No doors shall open immediately upon a flight of stairs, but a 
landing at least the width of the door shall be provided between such stairs 
and such doorway." 

The passage of this act was accomplished only after eight 
years of persistent effort on the part of the engineering soci- 
ety of New York, The same society assisted in securing the 
passage of an act in Pennsylvania which, as it is typical of the 
legislation needed in every state in the Union, is quoted in 
full : — 

Pennsylvania Law. — "Section i. Be it enacted by the Senate and 
House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, in Gen- 
eral Assembly met, and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the same. 
That, in order that due care may be exercised in the heating, lighting, and 
ventilating of public school buildings hereafter erected, no schoolhouse shall 
be erected by any board of education or school district in this State, the cost 
of which shall exceed four thousand ($4000.00) dollars, until the plans and 
specifications for the same shall show in detail the proper heating, lighting, 
and ventilating of such building. 

"Section 2. Light shall be admitted from the left or from the left 
and rear of class rooms, and the total light area must, unless strengthened 
by the use of reflecting lenses, equal at least twenty-five per centum of the 
floor space. 

" Section 3. Schoolhouses shall have in each class room at least fif- 
teen square feet of floor space and not less than two hundred cubic feet of 
air space per pupil, and shall provide for an approved system of heating 
and ventilation, by means of which each class room shall be supplied with 
fresh air at the rate of not less than thirty cubic feet per minute for each 
pupil, and warmed to maintain an average temperature of seventy degrees, 
Fahrenheit, during the coldest weather. 

" Section 4. All acts or parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby 
repealed." 

Other states which have in the last three years passed laws 
affecting the sanitation of school buildings are Virginia, Wis- 
consin, Utah, Vermont, and West Virginia. It is not to be 
supposed that this kind of legislation will proceed as slowly 
as it has in the past. The pressure for better things from 



The School/louse ij'j 

boards of health, educational organizations, and public-spirited 
people will soon bring lawmakers to a more active sense of 
their responsibility. 

Variety of Type. — It is obvious that there can be no one 
uniform type of schoolhouse suitable for all sections. The 
country school and the city school must be quite different, 
and buildings in the Northern states need a different treat- 
ment from those in the Southern states, where the climate is 
warmer, and those in the still more torrid province of Porto 
Rico. The great cities of the country have each sought to 
evolve types of school buildings well adapted to their needs as 
respects climate, growth in population, and financial ability. 
The citizen whose income is ^100,000 per annum may prop- 
erly reside in a more costly residence with more beautiful 
surroundings than he who has an annual income of ^5000. 
Thus it is with a large town or city. While requirements of 
health and sanitation should be rigidly adhered to, such mat- 
ters as architectural effect and other expensive features may 
be controlled by the condition of the pubHc exchequer. So in 
judging of the results of a community's work in the evolution 
of a school plant it should not be considered so much on the 
side of luxury and display as with reference to health, conven- 
ience, and efficiency. Mr. Edmund M. Wheelwright, who 
has designed many schoolhouses for the city of Boston, and 
whose book^ on school architecture is a leading authority in 
the United States, says : — 

" The percentage of excess of cost between a school designed with regard 
for architectural effect and one of a purely utilitarian construction is not 
great. Under ordinary conditions, satisfactory architectural results may be 
obtained at an increase of cost not more than five per cent above that of the 
most 'practical' construction. A careful reckoning of the cost of the 
Brighton High School, the most elaborate school designed by the writer, 
shows that but eight per cent of its cost, above that of a purely utilitarian 
structure, covered the expense of its architectural features. It will be gen- 
erally admitted that a large building demands a greater relative cost for 
architectural effect than does a smaller one. Few people now .maintain 
that a pleasing architectural effect is an unimportant consideration, and 
that a beautiful school is not a factor in the education of the young." 

^ E. M. Wheelwright, School Architecture, 



178 Educational Administration 

We are assuming that the school board is generally the 
responsible party in locating and constructing schoolhouses, 
although it is often the case that the city architect and the 
finance department of the city have a good deal to say. Keep- 
ing this in mind, let us consider the first great desideratum in 
providing a new school building, namely, its site. 

School Sites. — This topic, which is of immense importance, 
can be treated only briefly here. In the first place, great fore- 
sight is needed in all growing communities in securing ample 
tracts of land for public purposes as schools, playgrounds, and 
parks, and these three features of civic life in their modern 
conception bear a close relation to each other. Too often it 
has been necessary to locate a large schoolhouse in a portion 
of the city where the prices of land are almost prohibitive, or 
at least seem to be so, and hence such desirable accessories as 
a playground, school garden, or a park cannot be considered. 
The superintendent and the business manager of a school 
system have a grave responsibility here, and while they can- 
not correct the errors of the past, they can look forward and 
secure such action as will prove wise and economical. The 
writer has in mind one instance where the chairman of a 
school board persuaded his associates to act with him in 
purchasing several acres of land in a growing section at a 
price of twenty cents per square foot, where it was manifest 
that a schoolhouse would be needed. The wisdom of that 
transaction was evident, for soon both primary and gram- 
mar schoolhouses were required upon that lot, and abundant 
space remained for gardens and playground. In the mean- 
time the price of the land had risen rapidly. 

The Ideal Site. ^ Under no circumstances should a school 
be placed upon land that is cheap because it is low and 
damp or is surrounded by factories or business blocks, 
or where there is noise or other unfavorable conditions. 
Rather should boards of education seek such sites as 
lend themselves easily to landscape gardening and permit 
noble approaches and beautiful surroundings. If pos- 
sible, the lot should be large enough so that the building 
can be set well back from the street, and the grounds 



The Schoolhouse 1 79 

in front have landscape treatment with broad walks, lawn, 
and shrubbery. On one side, at least, of the building should 
be a school garden, to be cared for by the pupils and teachers 
under the general direction of the janitor. In the rear 
should be the playground where pupils may have entire 
freedom in organizing their sports and games. The ideal 
arrangement is to have one playground for the boys and one 
for the girls, separated by a high fence or hedge. Then the 
girls may have their own games or gymnastics out-of-doors 
in gymnastic dress. 

In a book entitled The Ideal School^ an interesting picture 
is drawn of a park just outside the city where all the 
school buildings are grouped in such a way as to form an 
aesthetic combination of lawn, forest, fountains, and walks. 
The pupils are to be carried to and fro from their homes by 
free trolley cars owned or subsidized by the city. The sale 
of the old school property in the town with its more expen- 
sive sites is to provide the new location and plant. While 
this seems to many quite chimerical, it is to be noted that 
more than one town has seriously considered this plan. 
Whatever its practical utility may be, it is highly suggestive 
of the high standard to be kept in mind in selecting sites for 
the schools of the people. Nothing which the community 
can afford, either in architecture or its setting, is too good 
when thinking of the ennobling effect of dignity and beauty 
upon plastic minds. How absurd to teach art in our schools 
when all the surroundings within and without are crude and 
poverty-stricken ! 

Selection of an Architect. — The next thing to be consid- 
ered is the selection of an architect. There are three ways 
of dealing with this matter : — 

First, by asking architects to make competitive plans and 
specifications. This method prevents dissatisfaction on the 
part of the architects and their friends. It brings before 
those chosen to judge the plans the best that is available. 
Too often, however, the judges have before them a variety of 
attractive pictures, the merit of which they are incapable of 

1 Preston W. Search, The Ideal School. 



i8o Educational Administration 

estimating. Even if they call in experts to aid them, they 
find it difficult to form a judgment, as all the excellent fea- 
tures, both in design and adaptation, are not to be found in 
any one or two sets of drawings, but are more or less dis- 
tributed among them all. The competing architects have 
thought to captivate the school board by an attractive picture 
which in its practical working out would have to be shorn of 
some of its ornamental features in order to keep within the 
appropriation. 

Second, another method is to follow the example of the 
private citizen who chooses an architect of well-known ability, 
and after telling him in detail what he desires, permits him to 
make the plans for his residence. He can frequently con- 
sult his patron and so evolve a design that answers to every 
possible need. This plan, when pursued by a public board, 
creates more or less jealousy, and often subjects both the 
board and the architect to criticism. It, however, works 
better in its practical results than does the method of compe- 
tition. 

Third, the town or city has an architect as regular officer 
who has proven himself trustworthy and capable. In this 
case he studies the needs of schools from top to bottom; he 
is in close touch with school officers and in designing a build- 
ing has their counsel and aid. He is able to produce a type 
of primary, grammar, or even high school building which is 
appropriate to the financial ability of the town, and which 
combines simplicity, elegance, and adaptation to every known 
want. If changes have to be made or enlargements, he is 
best qualified to act. In several cities of the United States 
this method of procedure has resulted in types of school ar- 
chitecture which are creditable to the municipality and to 
the nation. Working under such a system as this with a 
competent business agent or a small committee on buildings 
selected because of their practical judgment, there need be 
little difficulty about specifications and contracts such as 
are almost sure to arise where comparatively inexperienced 
people are attempting to do the business. In these days of 
experts school officers cannot be expected to know every- 



The Schoolhouse 1 8 1 

thing about school architecture, and it is proposed in what 
follows to speak of only those things which are most essential 
and fundamental. 

Lighting. — The approved modern school is constructed 
more with reference to lighting than any other one feature. 
With rooms rectangular in shape there should be windows 
on one side equal to at least one-fifth of the floor space. In 
the opinion of some, if the rooms are more than twenty-two 
feet wide, windows should equal one-fourth of the floor space. 
The substitution of an iron or steel mullion for the ordinary 
timber work has helped to solve this problem. It requires 
the highest skill of the architect to arrange a series of win- 
dows reaching to the top of the room and at the same time 
to secure an artistic result. Mr. J. B. Snyder, of New York, 
has solved this problem. The question whether the windows 
should reach to within three, three and one-half, or four feet 
of the floor is of less consequence than that their tops are 
nearly flush with the ceiling. This precludes the use of the 
arched or pointed window-sash except in those portions of 
the building not used for class purposes. While Hght may 
be admitted both through the side and rear of the room, 
there is an increasing tendency to have all the windows on 
one side, keeping in mind what was said above about the 
width of the room. As far as appearance is concerned, it 
has been found that symmetry is of more importance than 
anything else. This has been seen in the case of old build- 
ings where additional windows have been introduced, present- 
ing an unsymmetrical effect. If the conditions are such that 
the light is shadowed by surrounding buildings, then reflect- 
ing prisms may be used to advantage. Except in old build- 
ings there should be no need for such devices. In the 
orientation of the schoolhouse it should be seen that every 
room receives the direct rays of the sun for some part of the 
day. Double windows should be placed on the cold sides of 
schoolrooms.^ Mr. Felix Clay, an English architect of note, 
discusses at great length the subject of lighting schoolrooms 
and summarizes his views as follows : — 

^ Modern School Buildings, Felix Clay. 



1 82 Educational Administration 

" I. The main light to be from the left, other windows being only sup- 
plementary, or for the purpose of ventilation. 

"2. That the transparent glass surface in a class room should be, if pos- 
sible, one-fourth of the floor space, and should never, even on the south 
side, be less than one-sixth. 

" 3. That the sills of the windows should be not more than 3 ft. 6. in 
from the floor, and if higher, should be bevelled off'. 

" 4. That the glass should be carried as near the ceiling as may be con- 
structionally possible. 

" 5. That the piers between the windows should be narrow, and splayed 
or bevelled off. 

" 6. That the window at the end of the room opposite the master's desk 
be as near the back wall as possible, and in any case the distance between 
the back wall and the window being at least as small as the gangway 
behind the last row of seats. 

" The windows themselves should be constructed so as to allow the 
fullest amount of transparent glass surface. No transoms or heavy mul- 
lions should be allowed, because these are apt to cast shadows or make the 
lighting uneven, even though there may be a sufficient surface of glass after 
deducting these. It is hardly necessary to add that in calculating the 
glass surface it is not the window openings that are meant, but actual glass 
surface." 

Corridors. — The corridors should be from nine to twelve 
feet wide, according to the size of the building and the number 
of pupils to be accommodated. They should be well lighted, 
and the walls should be tinted in richer tones than are used in 
the class rooms. Staircases should be placed at either end of 
the corridor. They should be without open wells, with broad 
platforms for each story, with risers from six to six and one- 
half inches and treads from ten to twelve inches wide. Hand 
rails should be placed on either side and windows should be 
placed at the landings when possible. Fireproof or slow- 
burning construction is here more important than in any 
other portion of the building. The under floor should be 
laid diagonally and the upper floors should be of hard pine 
or maple and should be grooved and splined. The proper 
height of basements should be from nine to ten feet; the 
first story thirteen feet, and the second story twelve feet, as 
the light in rooms on the second story is usually better than 
that on the first. 

The ceiling plays an important part in the distribution of 



The Schoolhouse 183 

light and should be white. Stamped metal ceilings have 
often been tried, but are not as good as the plain plaster ceil- 
ing for reflecting Hght. The wainscoting of the building and 
the class rooms especially should be simple, whether of hard 
wood or plaster, and so painted or finished as to preclude the 
accumulation of dust. Hat and cloak rooms, if placed in sep- 
arate rooms next to class rooms, should be heated and ven- 
tilated as effectively as any other part of the building ; if 
placed along the corridors as is often done, they should 
have special facilities for the ingress and egress of air in 
order to effect perfect sanitation and ventilation. 

Blackboards. — Natural slate blackboards are in all re- 
spects the best and are in the end most economical. The 
first cost is about twice that of artificial boards, but they 
require no repairs and are easily kept in order. In primary 
schools the lower edge of the blackboard should be about 
two feet from the floor, and this should be extended to three 
and one-half for high school pupils. These blackboards 
should be from three to four feet wide and the length of from 
thirty to forty feet should be sufficient for any class room. 
Blackboards should not be placed in the narrow spaces 
between windows. A slot made in the top moulding of the 
board offers a convenient place for pictures which are to 
be used on occasion. Picture mouldings should be placed 
throughout the building. In the construction of buildings, 
large or small, such details as lunch rooms, laboratories, offices, 
teachers' rooms, libraries, and supply rooms are matters for 
consultation between the architect, principal, and school 
officers. 

Assembly Hall. — The assembly hall, which is often placed 
under the roof, is safer and more convenient when located on 
the first or second floor. Some of the larger New York 
schools have followed the example seen in several of the con- 
cert halls and have placed the assembly hall largely under 
ground, partially even under the sidewalk. 

Basement and Attic. — There is great economy in construct- 
ing the basement so that it is largely free from pipes, ducts, 
and supporting columns and is perfectly dry and well lighted. 



184 Educational Adrnmistration 

It can then be used for manual training, janitor's rooms, 
lunch room, bicycle room, and such other purposes as may 
be desired. 

Equally important is it to utilize the space so often sacri- 
ficed to an attic. By the introduction of dormer windows 
excellent rooms for domestic science with a dining room, sew- 
ing and drawing rooms may be provided. Still better of 
course is the plan pursued in many of the New York schools 
of having a playground or gymnasium on the roof, which in 
that case must of course be flat. 

The modern school provides many features which a few 
years ago would have seemed unnecessary ; as, for example, 
rooms for the storage of books and supplies, a library, a rest or 
emergency room for teachers and pupils, an art room where 
may be displayed some of the best work in drawing or where 
generous citizens may place casts or fine pictures. 

The Schoolroom. — The unit of the school building is of 
course the schoolroom ; and if this is of right proportions, 
well lighted, comfortably seated, and tinted and furnished in 
good taste, it becomes simply a matter of multiplication to 
provide the most essential part of the building. A room 32 
feet in length permits three rows of desks and ample space 
for the teacher ; 28 feet is a satisfactory width and permits 
five rows of seats with aisles of sufficient width. A room 28 
by 32 feet approximates 18 square feet of floor space for each 
of forty pupils and with a story height of 12 feet gives 200 
cubic feet of air space for each pupil. 

Sanitary Facilities. — It has long since been ascertained 
that the sanitary facilities of a schoolhouse can be secured 
without objectionable results no matter where they are located. 
It is simply a matter of plumbing and ventilation. If placed 
in the building, there should be the most approved appoint- 
ments. The same is true if located, as is often done, in 
separate buildings connected by a close passage. In both 
instances the very best apphances that the plumber's art can 
devise are none too good, considering the requirement of a 
large school. 

The educational departments of several states, notably 



The Schoolhouse 185 

Maine, Illinois, Nebraska, Texas, and South Carolina, have 
taken up the matter of schoolhouses and grounds and have 
published admirable illustrated monographs showing the most 
ideal features in all kinds of school buildings. Mr. C. J. Kern, 
Superintendent of Schools in Winnebago County, Illinois, 
has done much to show how rural schools maybe made social 
and economic centres and how school grounds and gardens 
may become influential factors in the development of the child. 
As the consolidation of districts increases, there is a larger 
demand for good roads, and so the interests of the farmer and 
of education are both advanced. 

New York City Schools. — There has probably been no 
better instance of the efficacy of having one intelligent man 
control the construction of an educational plant than has 
been seen in New York City. The difficulties to be over- 
come in renovating old buildings which have been surrounded 
by tenement houses and factories and in adapting new build- 
ings to the limited areas which can be provided where land 
is very expensive, have given to the work of Mr. Snyder 
pecuHar significance. The most typical plan adopted has 
been that of the H building, which permits the maximum of 
light and air for every class room. Says John Beverly 
Robinson, — 

" This clever plan, originated by Mr. Snyder's active mind as most 
available for New York schools, is that toward which new schools will en- 
deavor to conform as far as circumstances will permit. All architects will 
appreciate the skill with which this plan covers the needs of the case. On 
each front the plan presents an ample court large enough for a spacious 
playground and for trees and shrubbery in addition, much to the advan- 
tage of the untaught training of childhood as all will testify whose early 
years have known cool, shaded school grounds." ^ 

A study of these New York buildings is most interesting 
and inspiring, as it is found that not only is ordinary pro- 
vision made for teaching and health, but physical, manual, 
and aesthetic education have all been provided for. The 
buildings are all attractive without and are inviting and in 
good taste within. The high schools are impressive struc- 

^ J. B. Robinson, Architectural Record, Vol. VII, p. 371. 



1 86 Educational Administration 

tures and are superior to the best to be seen in Germany, as, 
having been designed more recently, they conform more fully 
to modern rules for lighting, ventilation, and sanitation. The 
school plant of New York City receives daily over 591,000 
pupils, who are taught by over 15,000 teachers (1906-1907). 
The school buildings as seen to-day are consistent with the 
ideals and aims of a school system which has freed itself 
from political influences and has made merit and faithful 
service the sole qualifications for employment and advance- 
ment. 

REFERENCES 

Wheelwright, E. M. School Architecture. — Davis and Snyder. 
Recent Progress in School Architecture, N. E. A. 1905:836. — Briggs, 
W. R. Modern American School Buildings. — Burnham, W. H. Ideal 
Schoolhouse, World's Work, 2 : 866. — Baudin, H. Les Constructions 
Scolaires en Suisse. — Morrison, G. B. School Architecture and Hygiene, 
in Butler's. Education in the United States, 409-464. — Parsons, C. 
H. Schoolhouse Architecture, N. E. A. 1900:610. — Hatch, W. E. 
Modern School Buildings, Sch. Rev. 11:509. — Bruce, W. G. School 
Architecture. — Skinner and Stetson. Surroundings of Rural Schools. 
N. E. A. 1903:85. — Robinson, J. B. The School Buildings of New 
York, Arch. Rec. 7:359. — Snyder, C. B. J. School Buildings in New 
York City, Ed. Rev. 15 : 17. — Beede, F. H. The Public High School 
of New Haven, Sch. Rev. 13:89. — Burrage and Bailey. School Sani- 
tation and Decoration. — Rowe, S. The Lighting of Schoolrooms. — 
Kotelmann, L. School Hygiene. Syracuse, 1899. — Newsholme, A. 
School Hygiene. — Shaw, E. School Hygiene. — Knobe. Beautifying 
the Public School, World's Work, 4:2156. New York School Archi- 
tecture, Sch. Rev. 11:456, 555. — Clay, Felix. Modern School Build- 
ings. London. — Search, P. W. Ideal School. — Gardner, E. C. 
Schools and Schoolhouse Architecture, Engin. Mag. 10:478. — Wilson, 
F. A New Type of School Architecture, Outlook, 1899: 809. — Gove, A. 
Public Schoolhouses, Ed. 1897:407. — Walker, C. H. Architecture 
of Schoolhouses, Atl. Mo. 1894:825. — Eliot, C. W. More Money 
for the Public Schools. New York, 1903. 



CHAPTER XII 

The Schoolhouse {Continued^ 

I. HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Principles. — The designing of the schoolhouse involves 
at the same time the planning of systems of heating and 
ventilation, and it is a fact that the alteration or improvement 
of these, once the building is erected, is a matter of excessive 
expense. There is, at present, little confusion or dispute 
regarding standards to be attained in these systems, but 
there is still much uncertainty regarding satisfactory methods 
of reaching them. These accepted standards may be stated 
as follows : — 

a. Temperature. — Schoolrooms should be kept at a fairly 
even temperature of not to exceed 70 degrees F. or somewhat 
less. In climates that are moist and not subject to extreme 
fluctuations a lower constant temperature for the schoolroom 
seems possible. Sixty-five degrees or even sixty degrees in 
England and in Scotland is regarded as suitable. Some 
physicians believe that under conditions of good nutrition, 
ventilation, and suitable clothing the body could easily be 
habituated to feel comfortable in a temperature considerably 
below 70 degrees. Probably, too, frequent short periods of 
standing and exercising the body would be helpful, to pre- 
serve an active circulation of the blood. 

b. Regularity. — The heating of the schoolroom should 
be such as not to involve draughts, irregular distribution of 
heat within the room, or during different periods of the day, 
or excessive heating of portions of the air in transit to the 
room, as where it passes over steam coils heated over 212 
degrees, or over very hot iron. 

c. Humidification. — In very cold periods some process of 

187 



1 88 Educational Administration 

humidifying warmed air should be devised, as the excessive 
dryness resulting from raising the air at low temperature 
and with moderate amount of moisture to the normal tem- 
perature acts in a destructive manner on throat and other 
tissues. 

d. Quantity of Air, — The provision of satisfactory ven- 
tilation requires the regular introduction of from twenty to 
thirty cubic feet of fresh air per minute for each occupant of 
a room. This is to be introduced in such a way as to pro- 
vide for the escape of contaminated air with the least 
possible mixing with the fresh air, 

e. Adapting Air for Use, — In cold weather, air used for 
ventilation must be heated before introduction to the room. 
In cities it should be filtered, especially if it is drawn into the 
building from near the ground. 

/, Expense. — In cHmates as cold as those of the North- 
ern states of the United States suitable heating and ventila- 
tion cannot be had inexpensively. 

g. Initial Outlay, — If the right kind of expert service is 
utilized in the installation of heating and ventilating systems, 
a considerable initial outlay is decided economy in the long 
run, due account being taken of the relative expertness or 
lack of expertness in those who can be procured to manage 
the system. 

h. Means of Control. — Under present conditions teachers 
are poorly trained with regard to an understanding of con- 
ditions of heating and ventilation. Their own sensations are 
quite unreliable as means of determining conditions in a 
room. Hence, as far as possible, automatic devices should 
be employed, such as two or more thermometers in each 
room, thermostats if practicable, and some simple means of 
testing the purity of the air at intervals, 

i. Direct Heating. — In regions subject to extremes of 
cold, and with the development of extensive window space 
for the suitable Hghting of schoolrooms, heating by the in- 
direct method is insufficient. For the exposed sides of build- 
ings, for large windows on the north side, etc., direct heating 
is necessary. 



The Schoolhouse {Continued) 189 

The Factors that enter into the planning and^ management 
of systems of heating and ventilation are the following : {a) 
degree of expertness in service available for planning, in- 
stallation, and management of systems ; {h) extent of build- 
ing unit to be affected ; {c) expense of equipment that can 
be afforded ; {d) climatic and other demands, and degree of 
efficiency desired ; {e) the demonstrated efficiency of types 
of plants recommended. These factors are, of course, to 
some extent interdependent. But the action of any adminis- 
trative body will or should involve a consideration of all of 
them. 

a. Simplicity. — If conditions are such that the Board of 
Education or other authorities cannot or will not make provi- 
sion for the employment of specialists in the field of school 
building designing, installation, and subsequent management, 
wisdom indicates that relatively simple and tried systems 
should be favored, rather than those which are complicated, 
even if apparently more effective and economical. The 
latter are likely to be badly installed and managed so as to 
be frequently out of order later. Systems of forced ventila- 
tion, for example, are undoubtedly the best when effectively 
managed, but they require much more expensive service 
for their right control, and, if not in good working order, 
are not so serviceable as gravity ventilation. Similarly a 
gravity system, if not well managed, may be much less 
effective than the more primitive one of drawing air into 
each separate schoolroom over or by the radiating coils. In 
a small school with inferior janitor service a furnace may be 
both less economical and less effective than properly jacketed 
stoves, designed to combine heating and ventilation, placed 
in each room. No satisfaction can result from the purchase 
of an expensive heating and ventilating plant which is fre- 
quently out of order and which, owing to bad management, 
brings teachers to the primitive device of opening windows 
in cold weather to procure fresh air. Almost all systems 
require a certain amount of cooperation of teachers in charge 
of rooms, and if it cannot be reasonably assured that these 
will have sufficient knowledge and experience not merely to 



190 Educational Administration 

utilize the means supplied to their own rooms, but to avoid 
throwing the plant out of gear for other rooms, then the 
simpler rather than the more complex system is undoubtedly 
to be favored. It is frequently charged that teachers, by 
opening windows and doors, or closing ventilating channels, 
disarrange the heating and ventilating of an entire building. 
Obviously the interests demand either a simpler system or 
better instructed teachers. 

b. Size of Structure. — To a certain extent the former 
question is also part of that which concerns the size of build- 
ing unit affected. The building department of a large city, 
where schools to accommodate twenty-five to one hundred 
classes are being erected, can, for initial purposes of planning 
and installation, and also for purposes of management, pro- 
cure a degree of expert service that is wholly out of the ques- 
tion in the village and rural school. To some extent in the 
latter of course the difficulties attendant upon design and in- 
stallation can be met by having certain state or county require- 
ments which must be met before buildings and equipment 
can be erected. But so far these requirements, found in a 
number of states, can only result in the establishment of 
very crude and general standards, and, perhaps, prevent 
waste and excessive cost. The school building law of New 
York, for example, is good in a general way, but until state 
inspection reaches the point where trained experts will be 
provided for the office and when a large degree of oversight 
becomes possible, the finer matters of heating and ventilation 
can receive little attention. But it is in the matter of man- 
agement that most uncertainty exists. The systems which 
are most effective under good management are the most 
wasteful and ineffective under poor handling. In very large 
buildings sufficient engineering skill may be provided to get 
good results out of systems of ventilation combining the 
plenum and exhaust. But in village schools, with ordinary 
janitor service, it may prove far more effective to install a 
simple gravity system. Again, in rural schools where even 
untrained janitor service is not available, it may often prove 
economy in the long run to install such a simple system as 



The Schoolhotise {Continued^ igi 

can be easily managed by the teacher and pupils. Under 
these conditions, it may not prove advisable to have even a 
furnace, but the combination of heating and ventilation by 
means of stoves, however simple in management, is some- 
thing that should receive much attention in installation. In 
this connection, of course, state or county approval of build- 
ing plans is preeminently useful. 

c. Window Ventilation. — In many parts of the United 
States, for the greater part of the year, window ventilation 
is effective, and not injurious. Devices to improve this have 
not yet received sufficient attention. Where the cHmate is not 
sufficiently cold to require heat during much of the school 
year, open windows combined with a simple form of gravity 
ventilation, which operates mainly to withdraw vitiated air 
through slightly heated shafts, may be sufficient. On the 
other hand, in northern and eastern states, with long winters 
and periods of excessive cold, it becomes imperative, if the 
interests of children are to be fully observed, that extensive 
systems both of artificial ventilation and of direct heating be 
developed. 

d: Practical Results Differ from Theoretical. — Especially in 
the matter of ventilation, and to some extent in heating, a 
great disparity exists between engineering theory, and the 
practical results obtained. Systems of ventilation, especially 
based on the gravity system, have seemed to be perfect from 
the scientific standpoint, but have failed in practice. Systems 
of automatic or semi-automatic regulation often fail to meet 
requirements, although theoretically perfect. Every one who 
has had extended experience with school buildings can recall 
numerous instances where school boards have experimented 
(for such it could be called) with new devices, only to find 
them fail in practice, either owing to inherent defects or to lack 
of ability shown in the subsequent management of the plant. 

The Types of Systems of heating and ventilation in use, be- 
ginning with the most scientifically planned, are the following. 
The description given is brief and is not supposed to take the 
place of the detailed ones to be found in treatises referred to 
in the appended bibliography. 



192 Educational Administration 

a. Plenum and Exhaust, combined with direct radiation in 
the schoolrooms. Air is drawn from outside of building, 
preferably from the top, by fans which force it along ducts 
into the rooms, after warming and moistening it by means of 
steam coils. Humidification is accomplished by jets of steam 
discharging into the air current. Somewhere in the duct 
bringing air into the building a diaphragm of burlap or other 
material may be stretched across, and a constant flow of water 
over this will act as a satisfactory filter for the air. With 
this system may or may not be fans in the attic to draw off 
vitiated air from rooms (exhaust). Or escaping air may 
be drawn into a large central chimney which, heated by 
the ascending current from furnace (the smoke, of course, 
being kept out of the chamber that carries the air). The 
most satisfactory arrangement is to have air enter the 
room through two or more openings on the upper part 
of the wall and discharge through larger openings on the 
same side near the floor. This avoids drafts, the undue 
mixing of foul and pure air, and most effectively pre- 
vents the establishment of channel-Hke currents through 
which air passes directly from inlet to outlet, thus leaving 
parts of room unventilated. In very cold climates it is un- 
desirable to have air introduced so hot as to serve entirely to 
warm the room, so radiators are provided at exposed places, 
especially under the expansive windows of rooms lighted from 
only one side. This is the most effective system of combining 
heating, ventilation, and economy in very large buildings. It 
requires expensive management, but with use of electric 
current to drive the fans an engineer is not required. As 
usually erected, ducts are too small, with the result that the 
loss of energy is great if sufficient ventilation is obtained. 
Inlets should have four or six square feet for each ordinary 
schoolroom, and outlets should be even larger. The supply 
of heat in radiators may be regulated by the thermostats, which, 
especially when electric fans are used, results in considerable 
economy of fuel. In case air is introduced at a temperature 
above that desired for the room, it is better to have an ar- 
rangement whereby some that has not passed over the heat- 



The Schoolhotise {Continued) 193 

ing coils may be allowed "to mingle with that which has been 
heated. This is effected by having the air duct divide just 
before it comes to the heating coil, so that, by means of a 
damper, only part of the air forced into the room will have 
passed over the heating coils. This damper may be regulated 
by a lever worked from the schoolroom itself, or automati- 
cally. 

b. Gravity Systems of many forms all depend on the prin- 
ciple that heated air rises, or rather is forced up by cold air fal- 
ling into its place. In milder climates the air warmed enough 
to be forced through the rooms also carries heat enough 
to keep them warm. In colder climates direct radiation must 
be used in addition to ventilation. The complete gravity sys- 
tem of ventilation always involves not merely the warming of 
the air which is to rise into and circulate in the rooms, but 
also the additional heating of air withdrawn so as to create a 
current of vitiated air away from the room. This is usually 
accompHshed by having outlets lead to a large central pipe or 
chimney which is kept warm by a smaller central chimney, 
the effect of the hot chimney being to draw the escaping air 
out at considerable speed. The device of heating the escaping 
air (which even in warm weather may be accomplished by a 
very slight fire) makes it possible to ventilate the rooms 
equally in summer, when it is not desirable to heat the air that 
is drawn into the rooms. In the introduction of fresh air into 
the room it was originally customary to have inlets at the 
bottom of the wall. To some extent this grew up because 
original gravity systems simply allowed for the escape of 
vitiated air through holes in ceiling or through windows. But 
in cold weather if fresh air is introduced at the bottom of the 
room, it tends to move in direct line to outlets, leaving large 
spaces unventilated. Hence it is best to have air inlets some- 
what high in the walls, and outlets near the floor, as in the 
forced systems of ventilation. Of course this reverses tem- 
porarily the upward movement ; but in the general circulation 
of warm air from the bottom of the building ultimately out 
through the top sufficient momentum is acquired to withstand 
this temporary reversal. Open windows tend seriously to 



194 Educational Administration 

derange the gravity system. Its effectiveness depends upon 
having very wide ducts, much larger than are ordinarily 
supplied, and in having several inlets at the bottom of the 
building for fresh, cold air, so that those on the lee side, 
wherever that may be at any particular time, may be closed, 
and those facing the wind left open. The air may be heated 
by furnace or by steam coils. The disadvantages of furnace 
heating are three : it is difficult to moisten or humidify 
the air properly ; it is apt to be overheated in passing over 
very hot parts of the furnace, and so become disagreeable 
and injurious (for causes that are yet somewhat obscure); and 
it is quite possible for poisonous gases, especially carbon mon- 
oxide, to escape from the furnace and so render the ventilating 
air quite injurious. It has been demonstrated that carbon 
monoxide will escape through a furnace, even if all seams are 
tight, if the iron gets heated to a dull red. The system of 
steam coils for heating air used in the gravity system is more 
flexible and effective. The air does not readily get burned 
or overheated, and it is easily possible to introduce a jet of 
steam which will bring about proper humidification. Since in 
cold climates direct heat must also be provided for the rooms, 
the steam system of heating is more effective and safe. The 
gravity system may also involve the use of the thermostat for 
regulating temperature, and a device for allowing cold air to 
mix with the warm that is ascending to a particular room, in 
case the incoming air is too warm. Modifications of the 
gravity system, involving the circulation of warmed air through 
hollow spaces under the floor, and the withdrawal of the foul 
air through dry closets, were once in considerable vogue, but 
have been largely discarded. With ducts sufficiently large, 
and proper control of inlets of air, the gravity system becomes 
effective and economical for small buildings and inexpert 
service. With it ventilation during warm weather may be 
kept up at slight expense, which is not true of the forced 
system unless electric current is used for fans. In practice 
the gravity system should have separate ducts leading to each 
room, since the opening of a window on the lee side of a build- 
ing during high wind may withdraw all fresh air from other 



The Schoolhouse [Continued) 195 

rooms. If the opening of windows cannot be controlled, then 
the effectiveness of the system depends on having the janitor 
able to shut off certain ducts, or diminish their supply so that 
other ducts may be brought into use. 

c. Local Ventilation with Central Heating. — Since in 
almost all larger school buildings steam heating will be in- 
stalled, even if an air-conveying system cannot be afforded, 
it becomes important to consider devices for ventilating 
rooms in which only radiators with either steam or hot water 
are found. One of these is to have grated openings into the 
schoolroom from the outer air just at the bottom of steam 
radiators, and the latter shielded, so that as the air about the 
radiator is warmed it ascends and draws in fresh air from 
outside. The shield around the radiator prevents any draft 
from reaching the children. Foul air from the room may be 
allowed to escape from a window opening, but this is usually 
inadvisable, because direct currents are apt to be set up from 
the radiator opening to the window opening, which carry off not 
merely fresh air but heat. Better is another opening, or two, 
not far from the bottom of the room, on the same side as the 
radiator; as air is drawn over the latter, and ascends in the 
room, air from near the floor, and presumably cold and foul, 
will be forced out. Such a system is largely affected by the 
blowing of the wind, and if air can find passage around doors 
or transoms, it will not give effective ventilation ; but it 
usually works much better than simple window ventilation in 
preventing drafts, and in heating the air for use in the room. 
All inlets and outlets should have hds to be controlled by 
hand. 

A simple modification of this plan is seen in some schools 
where no system of ventilation has been provided and no 
openings made in the walls. The steam radiators which are 
under the windows are set a short distance back and may 
even be left unjacketed. A broad duct of tin or galvanized 
iron is made, five or six inches deep and the width of the 
window, and so shaped as to permit of one end being placed 
under the partly opened window, and the other bent down so 
as to come near the bottom of the radiator. The radiator 



196 Educational Administration 

heats air in its vicinity, which ascends and creates a current 
of fresh air from outside into the room. The bottom of an- 
other window, sHghtly opened, will act as an outlet, this latter 
being shielded so as to prevent a draft in case the current is 
temporarily reversed. Like the former, this device works well 
or ill according to the direction of the wind, but it is inexpen- 
sive and simple to manage and does provide some ventila- 
tion. As a supplement to window ventilation, to be used 
in extremely cold weather, it is of some importance. 

d. Local Ventilation and Heating. — In many rural and 
village schools the stove is still the only source of heat. It is 
inexpensive to install and manage, but it is wasteful of fuel and 
distributes its heat badly. But when combined with a system 
of openings to outer air somewhat like that described in the 
last section, not only are its heating qualities greatly improved, 
but it can be made a very effective means of ventilation as 
well. This consists in having built around the stove a jacket 
extending to the floor and leaving a space of from six to 
twelve inches between the stove and the shield. Of course a 
doorway into the fire-box through the shield must be provided. 
Between the stove and the shield at the top the space is left 
open. The space under the stove is connected with the 
outer air, to that under the floor if it is wholesome, but pref- 
erably by ducts leading to the air at sides of the building. 
When the stove is hot, it warms the air between it and the 
shield, which air then rises and circulates through the room. 
Fresh air from outside is necessarily drawn in, and with a hot 
stove a constant current will be kept up. In ordinary rural 
schools much of the escaping air will pass through cracks 
around the windows and doors, but it may prove desirable to 
provide two or more outlets with flaps or doors, so that those 
to the windward may be closed, in which case foul air will 
always flow out to the lee side. As a means of preventing 
the discomforts of radiated heat, the above device is worthy 
of attention ; but also in improving the ventilation of a school- 
room it is of great importance. If, when buildings are being 
planned, provision is made for a chimney which not only re- 
ceives the stove pipes, but will also carry tubes to extract the 



The Schoolhouse {Continued) 197 

foul air (which should be admitted near the floor), the effi- 
ciency of the system would be increased. In a system used 
largely in Massachusetts ^ special " extractor flues " are built 
to carry off the vitiated air, and these are kept warm by 
additional small stoves. The system is then in effect a com- 
plete furnace system in miniature, all installed within the 
single room and capable of easy management. 

e. " Flushing " Ventilation. — No system of school ventila- 
tion can be considered complete which does not permit oc- 
casional " flushing " of the schoolroom, which means a com- 
plete exchange of all the air within the room for that from 
without. In cold weather it is particularly easy to effect 
this, since with windows partly opened from the top and 
partly from the bottom, especially in schoolrooms with an 
abundance of windows, the exchange will take place in a 
very few minutes. This "flushing" will carry off dust and 
organic matter which are frequently not removed by ordinary 
processes. It must be remembered that the loss of heat 
through " flushing " ventilation is more apparent than real. 
It is true that the air introduced from without will, at the 
moment of entry, be at the temperature prevailing outside ; 
but the amount of heat required to warm a room full of air 
is small when walls and all soHd materials are already raised 
in temperature. When such an exchange of inside for out- 
side air is effected, radiation from walls and floors and fur- 
niture very soon brings up the temperature of the introduced 
air with comparatively small loss of heat in the former. 
Of course, while " flushing " ventilation is going on, chil- 
dren should not be left sitting, and if the air introduced 
is very cold, they should even leave the room. But to have 
pupils vigorously exercising during this moment or two either 
in the room or in the hall outside is not harmful, but rather 
very conducive to health. There is no question but that, 
especially in poorly ventilated rooms, there should be a 
" flushing " at the end of every hour, and preferably at the 
end of each period. 

Effects of Poor Ventilation. — The matter of school venti- 

^ See Sixty-fourth Report of Massachusetts Board of Education. 



198 Educational Administration 

lation is one of the most complex with which the superin- 
tendent and principal have to deal. The obscure character 
of the ill effects of poor ventilation has tended to postpone 
any scientific consideration of the subject. Even yet it is 
not quite estabHshed whether the depression felt in unventi- 
lated rooms is due to the excess of carbonic acid gas, which 
is known to be produced by respiration, or to the decomposi- 
tion of organic matter thrown off by lungs and skin. Further- 
more, little is known as to possible habituation to foul air. 
But all investigations seem to point with certainty to the fact 
that human beings breathing th-e air that has been breathed 
before are temporarily depressed and may suffer permanent 
lowering of vitality and become more subject to disease. 
The probability is that if we could measure the product of 
school work we should find a startling decrease of school 
effectiveness in rooms not well ventilated, probably far more 
in the long run than would be the cost of a first-class system 
of ventilation. 

Final Responsibility of Principals. — But the difficulties lie 
in the general recognition of all these facts. Thermostats 
may be devised to automatically regulate the temperature of 
the room, but there is no equivalent instrument to test the 
purity of the air. A relatively simple measure is Wolpert's 
air tester, which consists simply of a bottle of lime-water so 
arranged that a rubber bulb can pump air from the room 
into the bottle. The number of times the bulb must be 
squeezed before a certain degree of milkiness results is 
taken as a crude index of the purity of the air. More exact 
devices are available, but it is doubtful if they can be used 
except by the person really interested in the subject. It 
seems that the only way to attain valuable results in the 
practice of ventilation is to have principals of schools receive 
special training in this field. Until they shall have had edu- 
cation for this function, even the best of intentions in those 
who erect school buildings will be largely brought to naught. 

Economics of Heating and Ventilating. — In the use of 
power for ventilation and fuel for heating and also ventila- 
tion, schools are peculiarly liable to suffer from the effects 



The Schoolhouse {Continued) 



199 



of mismanagement or peculation. To some extent this loss 
can be obviated by careful keeping of accounts and measure- 
ment of work done. An excellent example of such a study 
is reported in 1906- 1907 Biennial Report of the Schools of 
Erie, Pennsylvania. Over a series of years accounts were kept 
of fuel consumed, space to be warmed, and average winter tem- 
perature. The unit of work done was taken as " thousand cu- 
bic feet of air space heated." On the basis of this unit it was 
possible to test different kinds of coal, effectiveness of differ- 
ent systems of ventilation, etc. The following tables show 
some of the results : — 





Year 


Cubic Feet of 
Air Heated 


Total Cost 


Cost per M. 
Cubic Feet 


Average Winter 
Temperature 


I 898-1 899 . . . 
1 899-1 900 . . . 


3,510,000 

3,452,000 


$10,009 
9.831 


$3-31 
317 


25.70 deg. 
31.24 deg. 





AVERAGE COST PER THOUSAND CUBIC FEET FOR NINE YEARS 



Fuel 

Coal $3.71 

Coke 2.50 

Gas 3.10 

System 

Furnaces $2.93 

Boilers 2.48 



Ventilation 



Gravity 

Natural (window) 
Fan (mechanical) 

Heat Control 
Automatic . . . . . 
Non-automatic . . . 



153.00 
2.67 
2.45 



$2.39 
2.72 



Arranged in order of economical consumption of fuel during 1906-1907, 
the school buildings list as follows : No. 2, $1.85; High, ^2.04; No. 18, 
$2.37, etc. 

" The expense has been controlled to quite an extent by the intelligent 
efforts of the janitors to present creditable results at the close of each 
heating season." 



SCHOOL FURNITURE 



Principles. — Just as in the case of the installation of a 
system of ventilation, so the equipment of a school building 
with furniture involves extensive initial outlay, is to a great 



200 Educatio7tal Administration 

extent a matter for the expert, and for its effective use re- 
quires active cooperation on the part of teachers. And as 
in the case of systems of ventilation, principles are not fully- 
understood, as these relate to practice. But some which are 
considerably in advance of common usage are generally 
accepted by experts. Among the principal facts to be con- 
sidered are the following : — 

a. Sedentary School Life. — The greater number of days 
in the school year, the shortening of recesses, and the very 
sedentary character of the school life, combined with the 
great plasticity of the bones and muscles of youth, render 
school children extremely liable to permanent bodily derange- 
ments in case of maladjusted seats and desks. Even with 
the best of furniture, the long periods of sitting, the dispo- 
sition of pupils to assume uncouth postures, and the inability, 
sometimes, of ill-nourished children to hold the body in the 
right position, may result in lasting distortions of body and 
injury to eyes ; but these evils are greatly exaggerated by 
wrong types of equipment. 

b. Adjustable Furniture. — Even in the most carefully 
graded rooms it is impossible to provide a fixed type of desk 
which will be satisfactory to all children. The single individ- 
ual desk with a back to the seat is, of course, a great ad- 
vance over older types of benches without back supports 
such as are yet occasionally found in rural schools in America, 
and even in city schools in Europe. And when the fixed 
individual desk with backed seat is provided, it is also an 
advance step to supply these in grades adapted as nearly as 
may be to the average or mode size of given classes of chil- 
dren. But even with the best adjustment many individual 
children will not be fitted. Sometimes rooms supplied with 
unadjustable desks have, along with a large number of a 
given size, a few of smaller and a few of larger dimensions, 
to accommodate pupils of unusual development. But this 
device is frequently rendered unserviceable by the necessities 
of having the seats arranged harmoniously in the room, the 
larger ones in the rear, and smaller in front, combined with 
the further fact that teachers do not always feel free to 



The Schoolhouse {Co7ztinued) 201 

locate pupils in the room solely with reference to seats, 
other considerations like those of discipline, ability to hear, 
etc., figuring prominently. For rural schools, however, the 
device of having seats of several sizes is a valuable one. 

c. Types of Adjustment. — Accommodation to the needs 
of the individual pupil demands that school furniture should 
be of a flexible type, providing for adaptation both to in- 
dividual pecuharities and to different kinds of work. At 
least three kinds of flexibility are to be considered, and are 
to-day provided for in different types of furniture : {a) ad- 
justability in height, both of seat and desk top; (J?) adjusta- 
bility in the " plus " and " minus " distance, roughly, the degree 
to which the desk top stands in front of the seat, or, more 
correctly, the distance to which the vertical line from the 
edge of the desk top nearest the pupil is in front of or behind 
a vertical line from the front edge of the seat ; and, finally, (c) 
adjustability of the slope of the surface at which the pupil 
works. The need of flexibility in height of seat and desk top 
is evident, if the liabihty of youthful bodies to lateral curva- 
ture and other forms of distortion is taken into account. Not 
less important is the position of the desk top with reference 
to the vertical line from the seat, as this also greatly deter- 
mines whether bodily postures customarily assumed are good 
or not. Finally it is found that different slopes are necessary 
in reading and in writing, if the eyes are to be brought into 
correct position at the same time that the body retains its 
normal posture. 

d. Back Adjustment. — The back of the seat should be 
such as will also give proper support to the child when he 
is in a normal position. Some authorities believe that the 
back should be adjustable also, that is, that it should have a 
spring so that it may yield to the pupil's weight when the 
latter desires to change his position, such as is found sometimes 
in typewriter's or office chairs. Since this type is expensive 
and liable to become a source of disturbance, it has not been 
widely introduced. But in view of the need of frequent 
change of position on the part of children, the idea involved 
is worthy of consideration. 



202 Educational Administration 

e. Freedom of Body. — Not only should school seats be 
adjusted as fully as possible to the individual body, but it has 
come to be better recognized in recent years that if perma- 
nent bodily distortions are to be avoided, frequent opportu- 
nity should be given for movement and change of position. 
This may be accomplished partly by the flexible chair back 
previously alluded to. In some primary schools it is being 
secured through discarding the fixed desk altogether, and 
returning to the plan of having chairs and a large table 
around which children sit, as in the kindergarten. This re- 
quires more space, probably involves more noise, and does 
not provide height of seat and desk top adapted to each in- 
dividual pupil. But it does permit much flexibility of posture 
and of work, and the frequent change of position may com- 
pensate for other disadvantages. Change of position or re- 
lief from the fixed postures that lead to malformations may 
be secured to some extent through frequent calesthenic ex- 
ercises, standing, marching, periods of play within the school- 
room, etc. The development of these has, if anything, been 
retarded in recent years in the disposition to eliminate the 
recesses and to add to the amount of seat study. The de- 
velopment of more extensive gymnastic exercise, including 
that of a corrective sort, is important. Increase in the 
amount of laboratory and shop work will tend to counteract 
some bad effects of too much seat work, by providing fre- 
quent change. Garden or field work might contribute even 
more to sound bodies. It seems probable, too, that the ten- 
dency instinctive in the growing child to frequently change 
his sitting posture has not been sufficiently recognized, even 
with existing types of furniture. Instead of always bringing 
pressure to bear upon the pupil to return to one normal posi- 
tion, several positions, none unhealthful if not indulged too 
habitually, might be permitted. It is conceivable that the 
half-rechning posture commonly assumed by weak-backed 
children might not be objectionable if indulged in consciously 
as a rest for tired muscles, and if suitable precautions were 
taken to prevent it or any other holding of the body from 
becoming a fixed habit. Common sense would seem to sug- 



The SchoolhoMse [Continued) 203 

gest that bones take their shape and muscles develop their 
strength, not uniformly, but first by pressure here and relief 
there, and vice versa. The school furniture should provide 
for the assumption of varied positions. 

Functions of Teacher and Principal. — If true flexibility 
in school furniture is to be obtained, it can only be through 
the efforts of the teacher and the principal. When teachers 
can be trained to study the physical well-being of each pupil 
as closely as they scrutinize the scholastic attainments, it will 
not be difficult for them to diagnose cases of maladjustments 
to seats, and to procure proper fitting. It is a serious re- 
proach that so often when rooms are fitted with expensive 
adjustable furniture, no genuine attempt is made to fit it to 
individual pupils. In this connection, something might be 
gained by a system of publicity in each schoolroom. If a 
notice in clear type and easily comprehended EngHsh were 
placed where all children would be apt to read it, discussing 
such matters as proper ventilation, heating, and seating, it 
might create enough public opinion to induce the teacher to 
take a more active interest. Such notice should indicate 
clearly to pupils their rights, and help them discover when 
correct conditions are not being fully met. But, in the last 
analysis, training on the part of the school principal is indis- 
pensable, and until supervisors receive special preparation 
fitting them for their particular work, many excellent educa- 
tional plans will fail of realization. 

The following principles are noteworthy, as regards school 
desks, {a) Authorities largely agree that between the verti- 
cals dropped from the rear edge of the desk and the front 
edge of the seat, there should rarely be a " plus" distance, but 
that in reading the verticals should fall together, making the 
"zero" distance, and in writing the vertical from the desk 
should fall two or more inches behind the vertical from the 
seat, making two inches of " minus " distance. If neither the 
seat nor desk top slides so as to make these distances adjust- 
able, a slight permanent minus distance should be preferred. 
(<^) For reading purposes the desk top should have a consid- 
erable slant, even forty-five degrees for the best conditions. 



204 Educational Administration 

This is sometimes secured by having a top that may change 
its inclination, or by having a book-holder which may be 
moved out of the way for writing. Writing requires a slight 
inclination only, so in desks with fixed tops conditions have 
been equalized or compromised as much as possible, and the 
top inclines at a slope of from one in ten to one in six. {c) 
The introduction of vertical script has generally been believed 
to relieve children of an almost inevitable tendency to twist 
the body during writing. A revolving seat has advantages 
in the writing period, as well as making withdrawal from the 
desk a simple matter, {d) The straight back to a school seat 
is not favored. Authorities say that the seat should slope at 
an angle of ten degrees, but there is disagreement as to 
whether, in the seat with the fixed back, the child should 
rest against the support when writing. The kind of support 
which should be given to the back is also still a matter of 
doubt. 

Simplicity and Durability. — The most difficult problem, 
apart from uncertainties as to the character of the back sup- 
port and slope of top, in connection with school desks, is to 
combine simplicity and durability with efficiency. Many 
types of complicated desks have been proposed which seem 
to meet all hygienic requirements ; but they have been un- 
manageable under ordinary school conditions, or have lacked 
durability. The usage given to school furniture by children 
is very severe, and complicated desks soon get out of order. 
Unless it is known that new types have been tried and proved 
successful, it is well for a board of education that has not 
under its direction experts to attend to these matters to 
rely upon relatively simple and well-proven types. In Amer- 
ican states, of course, the desk which is adjustable at 
least as to height of seat and desk top is undoubtedly replac- 
ing the fixed type. Beyond that many features of flexibility 
are still in the experimental stage. 



The Schoolhouse {Continued^ 205 

3. THE CLEANING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND 
APPLIANCES 

Floors and Dust. — In many respects the problems of 
cleaning school buildings are not unhke those encountered in 
keeping other types of public buildings in order. But the 
constant use of schoolrooms for a considerable part of the 
day, and the unusual liability of children to infection do 
introduce some special features. Of especial importance are 
devices for reducing the accumulations of dust which may be 
stirred up by movements and exercises. Floors, as a rule, 
cannot be covered in schoolrooms. Hence they should be made 
so as to reduce cracks to the minimum. In some German and 
many English schools they are constructed of small blocks, 
sometimes set in cement, which are excellent from the stand- 
point of cleanliness and also serve to greatly deaden sound. 
Floors made of soft wood require hardening preparations in 
order to withstand wear. After daily sweeping, floors and 
other woodwork require dusting with a damp cloth which is 
better described as wiping ; dusting is universally conceded 
to be an abomination if performed with a feather duster, as 
it simply redistributes the dust in the atmosphere to be later 
breathed by the children.^ In recent years some attention 
has been given to preparations of oil to be applied at frequent 
intervals to the floor, and which have the effect of " laying" 
dust and dirt so that it may be later wiped -up. Excellent 
hygienic results are derivable from this process, though it is 
still somewhat in an experimental stage. Since this is a 
matter of requiring no great outlay, it is one in which every 
progressive board might well do some experimenting, as no 
possible harm can result. 

4. THE DISINFECTING OF APPLIANCES USED IN COMMON 

Contagion. — The public school offers a peculiarly favorable 
field for the spread of contagious disease. Children come from 

^ See Pruden, Dust attd Us Dangers. 



2o6 Educatio7tal A dminis ligation 

all kinds of homes, breathe the same air, rub against each other, 
and frequently use common appliances. In reference to the 
things which are handled and touched it is especially impor- 
tant that either individual ownership should be promoted, or 
careful disinfection provided. 

In the past the use of common drinking-cups has been 
necessary, and doubtless much disease was thereby transmitted. 
Something can be accomplished by arranging that the com- 
mon cup or cups shall stand in running water when not in 
use. It is also a wise policy to subject cups to a disinfecting 
process each night, using hot water and soap, a weak solution 
of carbolic acid or sulpho-napthol. 

Drinking Fountains. — But wherever running water is sup- 
plied, the use of the drinking-cup should be abolished and 
drinking fountains provided instead. These have been so 
perfected that they are capable of being used by all children, 
and are absolutely free from possibility of contagion. In prin- 
ciple, a small jet of water, rising a few inches, is provided, 
but with such low speed and regularity that any one may 
drink from it without discomfort. If water is abundant, these 
fountains are made to run continuously ; but if water may not 
be wasted, a lever is provided which is so arranged that the 
jet runs only while the lever is held in a certain position. A 
spring carries the lever back when released and closes the 
fountain. Drinking fountains of this sort (of course, all 
varieties are still patented apphances) are now used in public 
places and on war-ships. They are frequently found in the 
best schools abroad. 

The use in common of pencils, pens, etc., or the practice of 
having the school-books given out indiscriminately among 
pupils renders some system of disinfection of these desirable. 
Appliances of a very simple sort can be provided, involving a 
tight case in which the articles can be placed, and a small 
quantity of formaldehyde used to disinfect. The difficulty is 
greater in the case of books, but has been successfully met in 
public and school libraries. Or the school may provide tough 
envelopes in which pens and pencils can be kept, named for 
each individual so that the school retains control, but individ- 
ual use is still made possible. 



The Schoolhouse {Continued) 207 



REFERENCES 

Barry, W. F. The Hygiene of the Schoolroom. Providence, 1903. 

— Billings, J. S. The Principles of Ventilation and Heating. London, 
1884. — Bradford and Stone. School Seats, Rep. of Com. of Ed., 1898: 
611. — Briggs, W. R. Modern American School Buildings. New York, 
1899. — Bruce, W. G. Schoolroom Temperature and Humidity, Sci. Am. 
Supplement, 52:21436. — Burrage and Bailey. School Sanitation and 
Decoration. New York, 1899. — Clay, Felix. Modern School Buildings 
(with bib. of 151 titles). London, 1903. — Cotton, F. J. School Furniture 
for Boston Schools, Am. Phys. Ed. Rev. 9 : 267. — Gerhard, W. P. Bibliog- 
raphy of School Buildings and Hygiene, American Architect, 88:14 
(1905). — Harris, W. T. The Method of Ventilating Schoolrooms by 
Windows and Fireplaces, Rep. of Com. of Ed. 1901 : 2467. — Kotelman, L. 
School Hygiene. Syracuse, 1899. (Trans.) — Marble, A. P. Sanitary 
Conditions of Schoolhouses, U. S. Bur. of Ed., Circ. of Inf. 1891 (whole 
No. 173). — Morrison, G. B. Ventilation and Warming of School Build- 
ings. New York, 1 887. — Morrison, G. B. School Architecture and Hygiene, 
in Butler's Education in the United States. Albany, 1900. — Mosher, E. D. 
Hygienic Desks for School Children, Ed. Rev. 18:9. — Newsholme, A. 
School Hygiene. Boston, 1901. — Parsons, C. H. The Relation of 
State Legislation to Modern School Building, Proc N. E. A. 1901:815. 

— Prudden, T. M. Dust and its Dangers. New York, 1901. — Rowe, S. H. 
The Lighting of Schoolrooms (with bib. of 23 titles). New York, 1904. — 
Shaw, E. R. School Hygiene. New York, 1901. — Snyder, C. B. J. 
Needed Legislation in School Architecture, Proc. N. E. A. 1905:843. — 
Wheelwright, E. M. School Architecture. Boston, 1901. — Woodbridge, 
S. H. Ventilation of School Buildings, Am. Institute of Instruction, 
1896 : ^T. 



CHAPTER XIII 

Text-books and School Supplies 

Functions of Text-books. — The European observer of 
American schools is impressed by the large part which text- 
books play in the various state systems. Much capital and 
business enterprise go into the making of text-books ; many 
are made by the ablest teachers ; they are large, splendidly 
illustrated, and usually well executed mechanically. Exten- 
sive legislation in each state regarding the selection, adoption, 
purchase, and even publication of text-books indicates a wide- 
spread public interest and state participation. Generally 
speaking, the content as well as the method of education in 
any given field is determined by the text-book ; it is the pu- 
pil's vade mecum, and the teacher's guide. Too close adher- 
ence to the text is usually condemned as a vice of Ameri- 
can education, but foreigners note admiringly the ability of 
the pupil to learn from his books, independently of the 
teacher. 

Two features of American education have contributed 
mainly to this development : {a) The widespread prevalence 
of rural schools, with many classes, where the teacher could 
give each pupil or each class but little time, and where it was 
of utmost importance that the pupil, during the time that he 
was not reciting, should have abundance of well-organized ma- 
terial to study. From this condition has grown up the Ameri- 
can custom of making the " recitation period," so called, 
largely an examination on the part of the teacher of the work 
done by the pupil in studying his book ; {b) the large propor- 
tion of teachers who are immature and lacking in experience 
and funds of information as well as in control of method apart 
from the text. For these, too, the " hearing of the lesson " 

208 



Text-books and School Supplies 209 

has been the Hne of least resistance, and, probably, often of 
greatest profit to the pupil. These conditions have operated 
to produce the American type of text-book, with its digested 
content of all the knowledge which the child is expected to ac- 
quire, its excellent maps and illustrations, and its arrangement 
primarily for the teacher who "sets tasks." 

Within recent years considerable pressure has developed 
in the pedagogic field to prevent teachers from relying too 
closely on the single text-book, and this has developed a 
tendency to use "supplemental" books. In the fields of 
reading, geography, history, science, and even in language 
study, supplemental books of many kinds have come to the 
front and have been widely used. The pedagogic significance 
of this need not concern us, except in noting the fact that it 
is an important movement in education and destined to yet 
greater developments ; but we find that the situation, as re- 
gards the supplemental books, has greatly altered many of 
the older administrative questions touching text-books, like 
uniformity, methods of selection, state publication, and free 
supply to pupils. 

Evolution of Text-books. — In view of the traditions and 
necessities of education in the various states, it is undoubtedly 
true that the text-book as an agency or tool in the educational 
process will long continue to be of supreme importance in 
determining the content and method of that education. Much 
as we may oppose excessive dependence upon it on the 
part of teacher and pupil, it will long remain true that 
the immaturity of the majority of our teachers, with their 
consequent want of initiative and experience, their lack of 
professional training, and the fact that in rural schools they 
have many classes and in urban schools many pupils, will 
render the part played by the text-book in education, sec- 
ond in importance only to the work of the teacher. But 
the text-book is still in the stage of active evolution ; as 
pedagogical wisdom grows, as knowledge of the art of 
teaching crystallizes, and as new ideas of the educational con- 
tent which should be taught to children develop, text-books 
will change accordingly. Every few years will mark decided 



2IO Educational Administration 

advances, and within certain limits every educator will 
preserve an experimental attitude toward new discoveries and 
efforts in this field. Recognizing that in education the text- 
book plays much the same part that the tool does in the hands 
of the workman or the machine in the factory, the educator 
who is progressive will study all innovations, and on finding 
in something new a superior instrument, he will unhesitatingly 
recommend the abandonment of the old and relatively inferior 
tool. From the standpoint of educational administration, it is 
of supreme importance that this evolutionary and experi- 
mental process be recognized. It is important that in the 
process of administrative centralization, conditions should not 
develop which will greatly limit freedom, or seriously discour- 
age innovation, but which will permit advanced steps to be 
taken by communities and leaders which clearly see their way 
to better things. 

Commercial Aspects. — In recent years the production of 
text-books has developed into a business enterprise of vast 
magnitude and national scope. Local production in state, 
county, or city, tends to diminish in importance. Competition 
still plays, however, an active part in production and sale, and 
the progressive producers are giving constantly more attention 
to the quality of service enlisted in the production of these 
books. It still remains true, therefore, that the community, 
board of education, or educator who desires to favor output 
of an advanced character, can do so. By putting a premium 
on the best, by conveying to publishers ideas of the quality of 
work in books demanded by the best teachers, and by giving 
wide publicity to excellence wherever found, communities and 
individuals can greatly serve to direct the process of evolution 
which is going on so rapidly in this field. There can be no 
question that as all good administration in education insists on 
putting a high valuation on the character and training of the 
teacher, similarly it should put a large premium on the de- 
velopment of the chief tools which the teacher must use — 
namely, text-books. 

It is from this point of view that we must consider the various 
facts of an administrative nature in this field. The character, 



Text-books and School Supplies 211 

scope, and means of legislation directing the selection, period 
of use, extent of uniformity, and designating the quality and 
price of text-books becomes of much moment. 

I, UNIFORMITY OF TEXT-BOOKS 

Absence of Uniformity. — Formerly in the district schools 
of the states, so the histories of education inform us, there 
was no uniformity of books within the school, but each pupil 
brought that kind of book which his parents had at home, and 
in that the pupil worked. Naturally, with the coming of the 
graded system came uniformity of text-books in a given 
school for a given year, but not infrequently a new teacher 
would want a change. The laws yet in force in Pennsyl- 
vania illustrate what was once a common condition. " Im- 
mediately after the annual election of the teachers in each 
school district of the state, and before the opening of schools 
for the ensuing term, there shall be a meeting of the di- 
rectors or controllers, and teachers of each district ; at which 
meeting the directors and controllers shall decide upon a series 
of school-books in the different branches to be taught during 
the ensuing year ; which books, and no others, shall be used 
in the schools of the district during said period." In New 
York boards of education adopt and designate text-books, but 
"in the common school districts . . . the text-books to be 
used in the schools shall be designated at any annual 
meeting by two-thirds vote of all the voters present and 
voting at such meeting." A book, once adopted, however, 
may not be superseded for five years, except by a three-fourths 
vote of the Board of Education, or in common school districts, 
by a three-fourths vote of district meeting- 
Compulsory Uniformity of text-books has come to be the 
rule in all states, to some degree. But the areas over which uni- 
formity must prevail, differ widely, as do also the agencies des- 
ignated to select books. Local uniformity — in district, town, 
or township — is found in all the New England states, and in 
the North Central and Middle Atlantic states, except Indiana, 
Kansas, Missouri, and South Dakota. In all of the Southern 



212 Educational Administration 

states, county uniformity is prescribed, except in Delaware, 
South Carolina, Louisiana, and Alabama, where state uni- 
formity prevails. In Iowa we find a transition stage. If one- 
third of the school directors of a county petition for county 
uniformity, the question must be submitted to popular vote, but 
uniformity, if voted, does not affect cities within the county. 
Arkansas also allows the question of uniformity in each county 
to be settled by popular vote.^ 

Many Western and some Southern states have adopted 
state uniformity, and have provided text-book commissions or 
other machinery for the selection and distribution of text- 
books. California undertakes the publication of its own text- 
books for elementary schools, but has discontinued the prac- 
tice of employing local educators to compile such books. 
Now the State Text-book Commission can purchase or lease 
copyrights or plates. A variety of practices in connection 
with state uniformity will be examined later. 

Reasons for Uniformity. — At the bottom of the widespread 
demand for uniformity over large areas, and for a fixed period 
during which books may not be changed, have been several 
motives. The shifting of population from one district to an- 
other has been an active factor, for with purely local adop- 
tion f amihes moving into new districts were frequently obliged 
to buy new outfits of school-books before their children could 
attend the local schools. In regions where stock-raising and 
agriculture on rented land have developed on a large scale, 
this condition has affected a large number of people. An- 
other factor has been the acknowledged failure of purely local 
boards in dealing with the problem of selection. In the com- 
petition to have books chosen, agents of various publishers 
have brought to bear all kinds of pressure, legitimate and il- 
legitimate, and local boards have not always been able to 
make the selections which were best for the schools, or have 
made selections which have entailed undue expense on pa- 
trons. Undoubtedly, too, it was found in many states that the 
prices of books were being raised to an unreasonable figure 
by publishers and retailers, and this suggested the fixing of 

^ See Dexter, History of Education in the United Stai(S, p. 2l8. 



' Text-books and School Supplies 213 

the price by state or county authority. To a certain extent 
this was at the bottom of the state pubHcation scheme of Cali- 
fornia, for it was generally believed th^t state publication 
would greatly affect the price of books sold to school pa- 
trons.^ 

Selection of Text-books. — Apart from the matter of the price, 
the most important function of authorities in connection with 
text-books is the selection. In many cities, where the right 
to select is a local matter, the Board of Education assumes 
this function, but with an increasing tendency to cooperate 
with the Superintendent. In 233 cities and towns of Massa- 
chusetts the Superintendent exercises no authority in the se- 
lection of text-books in 8 ; advisory in 85 ; joint power in 
44 ; and in 92 he has full powers of selection.^ Where 
county uniformity prevails, the County Board of Education 
usually makes selections, this board usually, though not al- 
ways, being composed partly of teachers, and so involving a 
fair amount of expert service in the selection. 

State Authorities. — In the matter of establishing state uni- 
formity, of course the enormous importance of the work, and 
the strong possibility of corruption, has made the selection of 
the state authority for selection a difficult one. In Alabama 
the new text-book commission shall be composed of the Gov- 
ernor, Superintendent of Public Instruction, and "three emi- 
nent teachers of the state " selected by the Governor. But this 
text-book commission is aided by a subcommission of "a 
president or member of the faculty of one of the normal 
schools, a president or member of the faculty of one of the 
agricultural colleges, a superintendent of one of the cities, and 
two teachers of the common schools," who have advisory 
powers with reference to books, and the state commission 
" shall give great weight to the report and recommendation of 
said subcommission." In Indiana a board somewhat simi- 
larly constituted is found consisting of eleven members ; but 
the source of each is partly fixed ; it includes the presidents 
of two universities, and the state normal, the superintendents of 

1 See Faulkner, " The California State Text-book System," Ed. Rev. 20 : 44. 
"^ Prince, School Administration, p. 256. 



214 Educational Administration 

the three largest cities, and " three citizens actively engaged 
in educational work in the state " appointed by the Governor. 
It is essentially a board of educational experts. When state 
uniformity (and publication) was authorized in California, the 
State Board was made to consist of the Governor, Superin- 
tendent of Public Instruction, and the presidents of the state 
normal schools ; to this subsequently was added the President 
of the State University and the Professor of Pedagogy therein. 
Later the law authorized the formation within this board of a 
text-book commission of three, the limits of whose authority 
have not yet been fully defined, but this commission has 
power to employ an expert secretary and to make recommen- 
dations to the whole board. This text-book commission also 
is empowered to form committees or to procure recommenda- 
tions from educators in the state in the matter of selecting 
books. In Oregon the adoption of text-books is not in the 
hands of the State Board of Education, but is under a special 
state board of text-book commissioners appointed by the 
Governor " from different sections of the state " for four years. 
There is no requirement for expert qualifications. In Kansas 
a similar board of eight is found, with no prescription as to 
expert requirements, " but not more than three shall be 
chosen from any one political party." In fact, the presence 
of teachers on this board would seem to be rendered impossi- 
ble by the provision that " no per diem shall be allowed to 
any member of this commission who shall, at the time of ser- 
vice thereon, be receiving a stated salary from this state or 
from any county or city therein." In Idaho the State Board 
elects the commission, " at least two of whom shall be busi- 
ness men" and any one shall be eligible who "has had not 
less than five years' experience as teacher, and who is actively 
engaged in educational work in the state." The members 
hold office for six years. 

In North Carolina the State Board is the Text-book Com- 
mission, but there is a subcommission of " not less than five 
nor more than ten (to be appointed by the Governor) from 
among the teachers or city or county superintendents actually 
engaged in the school business of the state," which subcom- 



Text-books and School Supplies 215 

mission shall make examinations and recommendations to the 
State Board. In Nevada the State Board of Education con- 
sists of the Governor, Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
and the President of the State University; and the Text-book 
Commission is composed of this body with four additional 
members appointed by the Governor, who " shall be principals 
of schools employing not less than five teachers, or superin- 
tendents." 

2. PRICE REGULATION 

State uniformity practically always involves price regula- 
tion. The State Board or Text-book Commission is authorized 
to enter into contracts with the publishers or dealers fixing 
the rate at which books shall be sold or exchanged, and some- 
times requiring the maintenance of supplies of such books at 
designated depositories. In the case of county uniformity, it 
is also common to have the price regulated at the time of the 
adoption of the book, for otherwise a local monopoly of an 
intolerable kind would be possible. Since the law or rule 
frequently requires that the local retail price shall not exceed 
the retail price anywhere else in the country, it is also cus- 
tomary to provide that if, during the life of the contract, the 
price should be reduced elsewhere, it will also be reduced in 
the district or state where the contract is made. Only in 
Southern and Western states is state contract found. In a 
few states, boards of education are authorized to buy books 
and sell them to individuals, as a means of reducing the price 
to school patrons. In Ohio boards may appoint an agent to 
sell to school children books which such board has contracted 
for, but at not more than ten per cent above cost, and it is even 
provided that where children are moving into another district 
where different books are used, they may sell back to the board 
the books they have bought. In West Virginia, New Mexico, 
Arizona, and Ohio the local boards may purchase books and 
arrange for local depositories for the sale of such books to 
school children. In the case of Ohio, where the State Board 
fixes a large list of books from which all adoptions must be 



2i6 Educational Administration 

made, the prices for all are fixed by agreement with the various 
publishers. In no case does the state attempt to make a profit 
through deahng in text-books ; in fact, there is frequently a 
deficit to be made up by appropriations. 



3. FREE TEXT-BOOKS 

In recent years the question of supplying text-books to 
pupils without cost has come to be an important one in edu- 
cational administration. Very many years ago some cities 
began to provide free text-books (Philadelphia in 1818; Jersey 
City in 1830; Newark in 1838 ; Hoboken and Elizabeth, New 
Jersey, before i860; Chester, Pennsylvania, in 1864; and 
Charleston, South Carolina, in 1856), ^ but it is only within re- 
cent years, comparatively, that the number of cities so doing 
has become extensive and that free systems prevailing through- 
out entire states have been made mandatory by law. At 
present it appears that in a dozen or more states (Maine, 
New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Nebraska, 
Wyoming, and Utah) it is obligatory upon all or nearly all 
communities to provide free text-books, at least to grades 
below the high school, and in fourteen others^ (Connecticut, 
New York, District of Columbia, West Virginia, Ohio, 
Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, North Dakota, South 
Dakota, Kansas, Colorado, Idaho, Washington) it is optional 
upon vote of the district. In a number of other states it is 
obligatory upon the district or town (in Kentucky the county) 
to provide indigent pupils with free books, which become the 
property of the district (California, Indiana, Kentucky, 
Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, and Virginia). In the states 
where free text-books are optional, the movement in favor of 
them seems to be gaining ground, and in other states there 
are considerable numbers of teachers who favor some kind 
of free text-book system.^ 

^ Report of Commissioner of Education, 1903 : 2416. 
2 Report of Commissioner of Education, 1904: 2279. 
^ See Jenks, J., Citizenship and the Schools. 



Text-books and School Supplies 217 

Area Purchasing. — In all states the territorial unit, which 
is primarily responsible for the management of the schools, 
purchases the text-books. Usually this is the district, town- 
ship, or city. Generally the books are loaned to the pupils 
without cost, but a system of fines is sometimes arranged for 
the sake of securing good usage,^ and it is expected that a 
given book will be used by several pupils in succession. The 
school has the custody of the books, and at the beginning of 
each year is supposed to have a supply on hand sufficient for 
all pupils, thus enabling work to be begun at once. 

Public vs. Private Purchase. — Certain arguments in favor 
of and against the use of free text-books may be summarized 
and discussed:^ {a) Poor children are not placed at a disad- 
vantage, or poor parents heavily taxed, {b) The expense to the 
community as a whole is less than that in case of individual pur- 
chase, {c) Permits the work of the school to be effective from 
the very outset, instead of involving delay, (^d) Uniformity 
is secured, and changes for better books more easily brought 
about, {e) Schools are popularized somewhat and attendance 
prolonged in the case of many children. (/") The books are 
public property, and through them respect for public property 
may be taught, (^g) A varied supply of books, some strictly 
text-books, others supplemental, may be kept on hand, and 
the supply of material will be less limited, (/z) State or county 
uniformity, of the kind which hampers local initiative, is ren- 
dered less probable. On the other hand, certain objections 
are quite generally felt : {a) Parents and children having such 
material as books supplied free tend to become more dependent 
on the state and less appreciative of the responsibilities of 
private ownership, {p) The exchange of books involves the 
danger of transmitting infectious disease, {c) There is and 
should be a strong aesthetic objection on the part of cleanly 
children toward handling books soiled by other children, id) 
The building up of a private library at home is interfered with. 

1 In Yankton, South Dakota, books are rented to pupils. See E. J. Vert, 
Education, 21 : 27. 

2 See Report of Commissioner' of Education, 1902 : 632, for results of an inquiry 
on this point. 



2i8 Educational Adtyiinistration 

{e) Children are more destructive of books not purchased 
by themselves. (/") Withdraws school money which should 
be used for other more needful things, {g) Greatly increases 
work and responsibilities of teachers, principals, and school 
committees. 

Social Results of Free Books. — • Not all of these points are 
of equal value. In those states which make it compulsory to 
provide books for indigent children it is found that compara- 
tively few people in most American states come within that 
category. On the other hand, while undoubtedly the buying 
of text-books is somewhat of a strain on the resources of many 
wage-earners, we cannot overlook the fact that education has 
been free only within recent years, in European countries, 
and that there may still remain moral grounds for requiring 
parents to bear a slight share of a very direct form of school 
expense. In the last analysis, however, this question is one 
of the larger questions of social psychology involved when the 
state acts for the individual, which was discussed in a previous 
chapter.^ Undoubtedly, in certain stages of development the 
provision of free text-books by the community does weaken 
the individual in his sense of responsibility and self-respect; 
but under other circumstances it only serves to foster these. 
From the various comments coming from quarters where 
free text-books have long been used, it is not apparent that 
evil results are keenly felt, though of course this is not an 
evident thing, the results of over-dependence on the state 
being insidious. A similar conclusion must follow from an 
examination as to whether the free loaning of books to pupils 
makes these less or more regardful of them than of their own 
property. It is a curious fact that of those expressing opinions 
on this matter^ almost as many claim that the pupils are more 
careful of the free books than they would be of their own, 
as those who take the opposite view. And undoubtedly both 
are right, because they are dealing with different stages of 
social development, either the result of general community 
sentiment or of carefully directed school training. Every 
student of social conditions must know that, in certain social 

1 p, 49, 2 Report of Commissioner of Education, 1902; 632. 



Text-bcoks and School Stipplies 2 1 9 

groups, the " free thing " is the thing to be treated recklessly 
and improvidently, while in others "public property" is some- 
thing to be respected and preserved. It is conceivable that 
the American states, with their free land, free hunting-grounds, 
free forests, free fisheries, and free mines may have developed 
a considerable carelessness and improvidence in the use of 
these materials ; but it is equally certain that, under right 
teaching, it is possible to develop the social sense of most of 
these communities, whether of young or old people, up to the 
point where some of the responsibilities of public ownership 
can be appreciated. It can hardly be doubted that under 
right teaching " to have these books for use, realizing that 
they are public property, and being held responsible for them, 
teaches pupils a valuable lesson in care of property, and makes 
them recognize the rights of the public." A little care on 
the part of school principals, by means of printed sHps, 
will also greatly help in the matter of bringing improvident 
parents to a sense of their duty in the premises. 

Economy. — From the standpoint of the community free 
books are economical, because they may be purchased in 
quantity and, v/here no state contract prevails, by local con- 
tract, which considerably reduces the rate ; and because most 
books will serve several children in succession. In cases 
where there are several children in one family, of course, 
privately owned books may also be used by two or more 
members ; but usually, owing to changes in the book used, 
this is impracticable. In the case of books owned by the 
school, they may be kept in constant use during the four 
or more years that it is on the list of texts prescribed to be 
used. 

Aids to Progress. — Recalling what was said before as to 
the importance of having the best of texts in the school, it 
is evident that the system of free books makes changes some- 
what easier, and thereby improves the opportunities of the 
schools. Where books are adopted by local authorities, it 
is difficult to make new adoptions without exciting protest 
from those who have recently purchased books, and who are, 
after the change, obliged to obtain a new supply. On the 



2 20 Educational Administration 

other hand, where the school is the owner, no such public 
protest is encountered, especially since, as will be shown later, 
the old books on hand can, and under progressive conditions 
will, be used as supplemental books. Except in a very few 
remote communities the supposedly greater uniformity se- 
cured through free books and public purchase is negligible. 

Use of a Variety of Texts. — One very important phase of 
the use of free text-books has not received the attention it 
deserves. The dependence upon a single text-book in any 
subject which has characterized much of the teaching of the 
past is not defensible on pedagogic grounds. Already, for 
many years, the importance of supplemental reading has been 
recognized. In the best elementary schools the teaching of 
history by the topical method involves the use of several 
texts, or of a text and other types of books, to supplement it. 
But other subjects of the elementary school can also be much 
more effectively taught if two or more texts are used to sup- 
plement each other. Especially is this true of geography, 
arithmetic, and language, as well as reading, literature, and 
history previously referred to. Now it is, of course, impos- 
sible to require the parents of school children to provide more 
than one book on any subject at one time. But under a sys- 
tem of free books, taking into account old as well as new, 
it is always possible to have on hand more than one type of 
text, which may be made available to the pupil. Of course, 
this does not mean that the pupil is habitually to use two or 
more texts, but only that any adequate development of the 
topical method should involve the gathering of material from 
more than one source. Again, even the best of books in the 
fields of geography, history, and arithmetic do not treat all 
topics equally well ; even old books may have specially 
excellent treatment of special topics. The habit of cross- 
reference or comparative study of any topic is too valuable, 
in the estimation of able teachers, to be neglected. Only in 
the most modern developments of educational thinking is the 
full importance of relative independence of the single text- 
book fully recognized ; but it is sufficiently well understood 
to make this a central consideration in the proposition to 



Text-books and School Supplies 221 

provide free books. That school which has a considerable 
accumulation of books so that at times a pupil may change 
from one to another or may use two side by side is educa- 
tionally fortunate ; and this condition can only be realized 
under a free text-book system. 

Free Books and State Uniformity. — If, as many educators 
suspect, state uniformity of text-books is destined to prove 
disadvantageous to education in the sense that it will prevent 
flexibiHty and adaptation to local needs, then it is important 
to note that, under a system of free books, state uniformity 
is far less urgent than under a system of private purchase ; 
since the reasons which have produced state uniformity are 
to be found largely in the great expense entailed on individ- 
uals by frequent changes of text-books, and by the excessive 
burden imposed upon families that moved from one district 
or county to another where an entirely different system of 
text-books was in use. Children passing from one school to 
another find little difficulty in adapting themselves to different 
books ; the real difficulty lies in the cost to families. The 
general prevalence of a system of free books obviates this 
necessity, and would relieve most of the pressure for state 
uniformity. 

Aids to Attendance. — Finally, it may be noted that those hav- 
ing experience with free text-books claim that a prolonged attend- 
ance of pupils is secured, and that the schools are popularized. 
It may be doubted whether, in the long run, these considera- 
tions have much weight. More important, possibly, is the 
claim that under a system of public purchase, books can be 
on hand at the actual beginning of the term, and work begin 
with full effect. Practically it is known that under the sys- 
tem of private purchase many pupils are not supplied until 
long after the school has opened, and thus the early weeks 
of work are rendered ineffective. This is of especial impor- 
tance in country districts, having but six to eight months of 
school in the year and where local dealers are irregular in 
securing books. 

Objections. — Among the objections to the use of free books, 
two are of considerable importance : (a) The used books must 



222 Educational Administraiion 

be passed over to other children after they have become worn 
and soiled. This certainly raises aesthetic objections, and it 
is possible that disease may be transmitted. Neither contin- 
gency can be entirely avoided, but in practice the use of paper 
covers which are replaced by new ones at each transfer 
of the book does something to mitigate the difficulty. It 
is also practicable within certain limits to fumigate books, 
by having an air-tight case and using formaldehyde solution. 
In public libraries this is considered an effective means.^ 
{b) Another objection is found in the fact, discussed in a pre- 
vious chapter (see p. i66), that many communities reach their 
limits of taxpaying capacity, and the development of a new 
source of public expense does not result in increased provision 
of public funds, but causes the diminution of expenditure in 
other directions. It is conceivable that the introduction of a 
free text-book system would result in an eventual lowering 
of salaries of teachers, or the lessening of other Hnes of school 
support, especially as the purchase of books is always a matter 
of purely local expenditure. The extent to which this oper- 
ates in practice is obscure. In those states where the law 
permits communities to vote on the question of free text- 
books, it seems to be the richer and more prosperous com- 
munities which first take advantage of the opportunity. The 
history of public school support in the United States would 
seem to indicate generally that wherever a new source of 
expense has been added to the school system, — as the estab- 
lishment of secondary schools, the adoption of manual train- 
ing, or the provision of better school facilities, — where the 
taxpayers could see the results of the outlay of their money, 
it has not been difficult to keep up adequate expenditure in 
the older and estabhshed hnes. Except where the legal maxi- 
mum of taxation has been reached, it would seem that the 
same would be true in the case of the adoption of a system 
of free text-books. 

Cost of Free Books. — As to the cost of free text-book sys- 
tems, satisfactory information is not available. A study 

1 Library Journal, Vol. 22, p. 388, " Disinfection of books " ; same, Vol. 4, p. 
258, " Spread of Contagious Diseases by Circulating Libraries." 



Text-books and School Supplies 223 

made in 1898 by the State Superintendent of Michigan ^ gives 
figures from a limited number of cities which may be sum- 
marized as follows : of twenty-five cities answering the question 
as to annual cost of text-books only per pupil in the ele- 
mentary schools, eight gave the cost as being from 20 to 39 
cents ; eight from 40 to 59 cents ; three from 60 to 79 cents ; 
one from 80 to 99 cents; and four from ;^i up. Of these 
last, Syracuse reported the expense as $\, Philadelphia, 
as ^i.oi, Springfield, Massachusetts, as $1.92, and Butte, 
Montana, as $2. Four cities in Nebraska reported an ex- 
pense ranging from 40 to 59 cents. 

Of thirty-nine cities giving the cost of free text-books per 
pupil, including high school, five reported expense as rang- 
ing from 30 to 49 cents ; seventeen as ranging from 50 to 69 
cents ; seven from 70 to 89 cents ; five from 90 cents to 
$1.09; and five in excess of ^1.09. Of nine Massachusetts 
cities reporting, three gave an expense per pupil of element- 
ary and high school books together of from 62 to 68 cents ; 
two from 82 to 85 cents ; and four ^i or more, including 
Springfield, $2.23. The commonest cost per pupil, then, for 
free books in the elementary school would be in the neigh- 
borhood of 40 cents per annum ; while including high school 
it would be something like 60 cents. ^ The total cost of 
schools in the city systems of the United States in 1899 
was given as 1^31.86 per capita,^ so that a cost of 40 cents 
per pupil for text-books would represent from one to two 
per cent of the total expenditure. These, of course, are all 
very crude approximations, but it may safely be inferred that 
the adoption of a system of free text-books by any com- 
munity will increase current expenses by from one to two 
per cent. 

^ See Report of Commissioner of Education, 1902 : 639. 

2 See also Strayer, G. D., City School Expenditm-es, where some interesting 
figures are given as to relative cost of text-books and school supplies in 57 
cities. 

^ Report of Commissioner of Education, 1906 : 342. 



224 Educational Administration 



4. SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS 

The very great importance in educational practice of sup- 
plementary books has been previously alluded to. Nowhere 
does the state attempt to regulate use of supplementary 
books, except in California, where the Text-book Committee 
has power " to adopt a list of supplementary books from 
which county and city boards of education shall select and 
adopt books for supplemental use in the schools." Very 
commonly the law providing for state uniformity explicitly 
deprives the state board or commission of the right to regu- 
late the kind of supplemental books used, usually with the 
stipulation that the latter may not be required to be pur- 
chased by the pupil. In the case of California, the fact that 
the Text-book Committee makes such a list is no restriction 
in practice, for almost any acceptable book will be placed on 
the list. 

Where county adoption prevails, it is common to have a 
list of supplemental books from which teachers or principals 
may choose. But practically this use admits of much 
flexibility, since these come more within the sphere of 
library books. They are owned by the school, are not con- 
stantly used, and are usually purchased for specific purposes 
requiring special adaptation. In this field, provided funds 
for the purchase of such books are available, educators have 
much liberty of choice. 



5. THE PROBLEM OF UNIFORMITY 

The causes which have operated to bring about uniformity 
of text-books are still operative, and the question as to what 
extent text-books should be uniform and selected by central 
authority, and how far an element of elasticity should be in- 
troduced into this selection is by no means a closed one in 
educational administration. Where the system of free books 
or of books loaned or rented to pupils prevails, many of the 
arguments for uniformity lose their force. On the other hand, 



Text-books and School Supplies 225 

the ignorance and incapacity of many local authorities in 
selecting text-books stands as a strong argument against local 
adoption even in the case of free books. 

The Objections against Uniformity in county or state are 
two : {a) even in the larger unit it is by no means possible 
always to secure by legislation a body immune to the larger 
temptations that may be offered for the selection of inferior 
books, nor is it at all certain that, granting the honest in- 
tentions of such bodies, capacity can be found for wise selec- 
tion for a wide area and over a series of years, {p) But the 
more fundamental objection is to be found in the fact that 
extensive uniformity does not permit the flexibility which the 
progress of education demands. There are two reasons for 
this flexibility : {a) Communities differ very much in their 
demands on text-books. In the one a certain type of book 
may produce the best results which would be quite una- 
dapted to the use of another community. For a school hav- 
ing a large proportion of foreign children one type of book is 
best suited ; for a rural school as against a city school another 
type, {p) Again, flexibility is demanded in the interests of 
educational progress because, as previously pointed out, im- 
provements are constantly being made in text-books which can 
only come to the front by being recognized in certain ad- 
vanced schools first, after which their use will spread by the 
popular educational interest they awaken. Both these points 
are recognized in some systems of uniformity. The Ohio 
system is simply an open list, which can hardly be said to 
produce uniformity, though it does regulate prices throughout 
the state. In Texas, cities of over 10,000 population are 
exempted from the operation of the uniform text-book law ; 
and in Idaho, if it appear to the boards of education of inde- 
pendent districts that the adoption of additional or different 
text-books from those of the state list " shall be to the best 
interests of the educational work of such independent dis- 
trict," they may submit their claims to the state text-book 
commissioners for a change, which the commissioners may 
grant. Again, in almost no states are the requirements for 
uniformity of books in the secondary school as rigid as for 
Q 



2 26 Educational Administration 

books in the elementary school. In some cases the county 
or state provides an "approved list" from which schools 
may make their selection. 

Selection by Experts. — Granting that uniformity of a cer- 
tain kind must be had, it is or should be evident that the 
selection of the best books is unquestionably a matter for ex- 
pert judgment. There are no ordinary standards of peda- 
gogic quality for text-books, even if mechanical tests could be 
established ; for a successful text-book is a work of art, hav- 
ing good or bad pedagogical qualities which enhance or dimin- 
ish its serviceableness, and for judging this only experience 
and insight should be utihzed. As with other types of tools,- 
the effectiveness of the worker, whether teacher or pupil, 
depends very much upon the quality of the tools used ; and it 
may well happen that a text-book which appears to be very 
expensive as contrasted with some other may in the educa- 
tion of the child be the best possible investment. 

Hence it is obvious that the selection of text-books must 
be a matter for the expert — the expert in education, not in the 
making of text-books, is meant. Only the trained and experi- 
enced teacher or leader of teachers can say finally what kind 
of tool (text-book) will produce best results in the educational 
process. Only the expert again can say whether it is wise 
that the same book be used for a variety of schools, or 
whether considerable room for local adaptation should be al- 
lowed. We have already noted that in several of the states 
where uniformity prevails provision is made, through expert 
service on the board itself, or through the use of subcommis- 
sions of experts cooperating with the board, for utilizing the best 
knowledge of active educators in the selection of books, and 
similarly in the case of county boards. With the develop- 
ment of local expert supervision there can be no doubt that 
local selection will more and more be selection by the Superin- 
tendent or an expert body acting with him. (Cf. the state of 
Washington which, after some trial of state uniformity, has 
abandoned it and in districts of the first class has text-books 
selected by a district {i.e. city) commission composed of the 
Superintendent of Schools, two members of the board, and 



Text-books and School Supplies 227 

two active teachers.) Everywhere, even in cases of state uni- 
formity, it is possible that it would be well to have a lay body 
to approve of the work of the committee of experts, but the 
lay body should not have powers of initiation. 

Adaptation to Local Needs. — But the question of uniformity 
will have to be submitted to another test in the case of the 
demand for flexibility and recognition of variation in local 
needs. If the prices of various good books selected by state 
authority are fixed, and if by means of free text-book or the 
Ohio provision that children moving out of the district may 
sell back their books to the district, the cost to parents moving 
from district to district can be relieved, is there any valid reason 
why the children of a given state should all be confined to 
exactly the same text ? Undoubtedly the ability of the state 
to contract for all the books to be used by its children for a 
series of years does result in a slight diminution of price ; and 
yet it can hardly be claimed that this is sufficient to compen- 
sate for the loss which might come through the failure of 
books to be adapted to certain types of local need or to the 
inability of schools of a progressive community to try the best 
of the newer developments in the field of text-books. 

Conclusion. — As a tentative conclusion, the following is 
offered : the state or the county or the local supervision dis- 
trict should be an area for the selection of books, for making 
contracts as to quality and price ; all selection should be in 
the hands of experts, subject to the approval of a lay board, 
or ex-officio board acting in a lay capacity ; the books adopted 
in any one subject should be of more than one kind, that 
is, of more than one authorship or publisher; any city 
or supervised division should have the right to appeal, on 
grounds of educational opportunity and advantage, for per- 
mission to use books not on the adopted list, with a detailed 
showing of the reasons for such change, which reasons, it is 
needless to say, should come from expert educators ; and the 
school should purchase books and loan them to pupils, so 
that not only will families moving into the districts not be 
subject to a heavy tax, but also the school may more easily 
change the type of book in use when newer and better ones 



228 Educational Administration 

are adopted by the central authorities, the old books contin- 
uing to be used as long as possible for supplemental pur- 
poses. Through some such scheme as this only can it become 
possible to provide for each school or district the books best 
adapted to it, with opportunities to procure the best, and at 
the same time to minimize the possibilities of corruption in 
this very important part of business administration.^ 

6. SCHOOL SUPPLIES 

School supplies are of various sorts. Some, like laboratory 
apparatus, globes, charts, maps, and furniture, must be pur- 
chased by the school. Others, like pencils, paper, ink, slates, 
and pens, are sometimes provided by the children, sometimes 
by the school. The tendency is increasing to have the 
school provide ordinary supplies, owing to the vastly greater 
economy involved, so far as the community is concerned. 
In the kinds of supplies first mentioned, no attempts at state 
uniformity and contract exist ; many states provide for county 
regulation, that is, in order to protect the district from travel- 
ling venders, the county board adopts a list of the brands of 
apparatus or supplies which it is permitted the local authori- 
ties to buy. In the matter of supplies for pupils' use the 
schools are usually left independent, that is, the authority of 
the smallest division, district, town, or city, which spends 
public money, is left free. It is not uncommon to find 
considerable "graft" prevailing in this field of educational 
administration. There is frequently lacking business manage- 
ment, as in the provision of standard samples, the advertising 
for bids, distribution among schools and among pupils on a 
plan that involves system and checking against extravagance 

1 " . . . from the year 1894 to date, forty-one of our states have taken some 
action regarding either uniformity of text-books or the supplying of text-books free 
or at low rates. (The motives for this movement cannot be known at present.) 
Enough, however, is shown ... to make it clear that our people generally have 
made arrangements for providing our pupils with text-books which they deem 
suitable, at such rates — if, indeed, they are not furnished free — that no hin- 
drances shall be put in the way of a thorough elementary education." — Jenks, 
Citizenship and the Schools, p. 256, 



Text-books and School Supplies 229 

and waste, and in providing for systematic publicity in school 
reports and otherwise. In the school systems of cities it has 
seemed desirable in some cases to estabhsh departments of 
business administration, to care for the matter of supplies 
among others. Undoubtedly in cities a trained expert should 
be employed in this field, not, however, as the equal in rank of 
the Superintendent, but as a deputy for this special business. 
More even than in the case of text-books must local needs be 
consulted and provision made for the adoption of new and 
desirable things. Less even than in the case of text-books is 
uniformity or prescription from a central authority possible. 
There are, however, fully as great and important reasons 
why, in the selection and purchase of supplies, educational 
interests should stand paramount, and why, when possible, 
experts and expert management should be sought. 

REFERENCES 

Cornell, L. S. State Uniformity of Text-books, Proc. N. E. A. 1888: 
225. — Faulkner, R. B. The California State Text-book System, Ed. 
Rev. 20:44. — Jenks, J. Citizenship and the Schools. New York, 1906. 
— Jenks, J. Text-book Legislation, Pol. Sci. Quar. 1891 (Mch.). — 
Marble, A. W. Uniformity of Text-books, Proc. N. E. A. 1888 : 201. — 
Stevenson, R. W. Should the State furnish Books and Appliances Free? 
Proc. N. E. A. 1888 : 211. — Swett, John. The General Functions of the 
State in Regard to Text-books, Proc. N. E. A. 1888 : 198. — Tash, T. 
Free Text-books for Free Schools, Proc. N. E. A. 1888 : 220. —Vest, 
E. J. Text-books and Public Schools, Ed. 21:27. — Webster, W. C. 
Recent Centralizing Tendencies in State Educational Administration. 
New York, 1897. See also digests of state laws, etc., in regard to free 
books in Reports of Com. of Ed. for 1898-1899:553; 1897-1898:893; 
1900:2603; 1902:632; 1902:2390; 1903:2415; 1904:2279. 



CHAPTER XIV 

The Superintendent of Public Instruction 

In the previous chapters we have shown what changes 
have taken place in recent years tending to produce a higher 
degree of centralization in city government, more definite 
placing of responsibility, and a more satisfactory method of 
selecting executive officers. We have shown how both di- 
rectly and indirectly these changes affect the administration 
of schools ; and we now come to the consideration of the 
functions of executive officers in the school system. 

Powers given the Superintendent. — It cannot be said that 
as yet there has been in any large number of towns and 
cities a clear separation of legislative and executive func- 
tions. While this step has been taken in some cities, in the 
larger number of instances we find boards of education not 
only legislating but still undertaking through committees or 
individually to manage much of the business connected with 
the schools, both educational and material. In other words, 
we find throughout the country every possible grade of power 
and opportunity granted to the Superintendent, He is seen 
as a mere clerk or servant of the board, simply carrying out 
directions as given by them, or we find him possessing al- 
most autocratic powers and acting quite independently of the 
board. Between these extremes we can observe every kind 
of practice imaginable; but the trend is so strongly in favor 
of giving by statute large powers to the Superintendent in 
all educational matters that we prefer to consider his func- 
tions as related to the more ideal situation which we believe 
will soon prevail throughout the country. 

Qualifications of the Superintendent. — The Superintendent 
considered from this advanced point of view is practically a 
new official. He holds a most important position in city 

230 



The Supermtende7it of Public Instruction 231 

government, and the question what the future of American 
education shall be depends largely upon him. Hitherto, the 
person of ordinary ability and attainments has been able to 
hold his own and to work with and for the Board of Educa- 
tion, promoting harmony and often helping to secure a good 
degree of uniformity in the schools. But in the new regime, 
no ordinary person will suffice. The Superintendent of 
Schools must be the peer of the ablest man in other pro- 
fessions. He must possess those qualities of leadership and 
statesmanship which shall render him well-high invincible. 
So profoundly important is this matter of ability and per- 
sonal equipment of the highest school official that it is well 
for us to consider it in some detail. 

First, the Superintendent should have a good knowledge 
of the history of our country and the various factors which 
have entered into our civilization. He should be able to dis- 
cern our national genius and character in the light of world 
development and the achievements of other nations. He 
should appreciate our peculiar racial inheritance, the spirit 
of our government, and the large place which its system of 
education should fill in our social progress. 

Second, realizing what our political, social, and religious in- 
heritance is, he should be able to conceive of education as a 
means of putting all children and youth in possession of that 
inheritance. In other words, he should possess the broadest 
conception of the educative process and have a definite idea 
of what part the schools are to play in that process. 

Third, the Superintendent should be broadly educated. 
With university training as a basis he should have had such 
experience with men and affairs as to make him something 
more than an academic product. His early life may have 
been one of struggle and hardship, or he may have been de- 
prived of the best advantages. If, however, during his work- 
ing years he has kept his mind open and has drawn upon the 
great sources of culture, and has made it one of his chief 
objects to appreciate the higher life, he will not be found want- 
ing when measured by the high standard we are describing. 

Fourth, he should have convictions concerning educational 



2^2 EdMcational Administration 

theory and practice for which he is ready to stand or even to 
fall. He need not be dogmatic or aggressive in urging his 
views ; but, recognizing the necessity of the time element, us- 
ing tact and good judgment, he should endeavor to educate 
not only his board and immediate associates, but the entire 
community to the principles which he believes are sound. 
In order to do this to the best advantage, he should be at 
home among men and be able to meet them on the plane 
of good citizenship and mutual interest in public affairs. 

Fifth, he should regard the whole community as his 
proper field of labor, for the schools are so vitally related to 
all human needs and activities that the entire city becomes 
a parish to which the Superintendent must minister. This 
responsibility should include not only industrial and commer- 
cial institutions but libraries, churches, museums, clubs, and 
all other culture forces and the mutual relations which should 
exist between thein and the schools. 

Sixth, the Superintendent must be familar with the struc- 
ture of the local government and cultivate a live interest in 
its doings. He will take note of the relation which the local 
taxes bear to the assessed valuation of property, to the 
municipal budget and its apportionment. He will be in- 
formed concerning the comparative expense of various de- 
partments of his own and other cities. He will also study 
with care the several items of the school budget and see how 
they compare with similar items in the school expenses of 
other cities of the same class. Nothing commends the work 
of a Superintendent more highly to practical business men 
than to find him possessing a ready knowledge of those fiscal 
questions which are ever recurring in educational manage- 
ment. Such wisdom and skill as secures the best possible 
return for the money expended and the economical use of 
all the means expended are at a high valuation when dis- 
played by public servants. 

Seventh, finally the Superintendent should have those 
personal qualities of courtesy, good breeding, and sympathy 
which make him a welcome guest in any home and which 
insure his social position in the community. He should be 



The Siiperintendent of Public Instruction 233 

recognized as a devoted and sincere servant of the cause he 
represents, and should be esteemed by all his associates as a 
loyal and trusted friend. 

If it appears that this is too exalted an estimate of what a 
Superintendent should be, let it be remembered that he holds 
in his hand the destinies of all the children and is to be a 
guide and adviser to all the teachers, and the further con- 
sideration of his multifarious responsibilities and duties will 
only tend to emphasize the requirements just enumerated. 

Superintendent should certificate Teachers. — Perhaps the 
most important function of the Superintendent is the part 
he takes in the certification, selection, and appointment of 
teachers. The prevailing practice and the relation which the 
Superintendent bears to it has been set forth in another 
chapter, but it is proper here to urge the wisdom of making 
the certificating and selection of teachers a purely executive 
matter to be performed by the Superintendent of Schools. 
In case the system provides for a Board of Examiners, the 
Superintendent should be the chairman of that board and 
should be able to use the eligible list in such a way as to 
have reasonable freedom in adapting persons to particular 
positions. Every teacher in the force should know that he 
owes his position largely to the choice of the Superintendent, 
and that he is responsible directly to him for the service he 
renders. In no other way is it possible to hold the Superin- 
tendent responsible for the quality of schoolroom work. It 
should also be possible for the Superintendent in exceptional 
cases, and especially in fiUing positions of a technical char- 
acter, to go outside and find the person best fitted for the 
position. This prevents the stagnation which comes from 
long-continued in-breeding. It introduces new Hfe and new 
energy and offers a premium to superior talent wherever it 
may be found. 

The Principal as Adviser, — The poHcy of having the 
principal of a school jointly interested and responsible for 
the selection of teachers has worked well; and wherever it is 
so provided by the statutes or regulations of the department 
the wise Superintendent will always look to him for sugges- 



2 34 Educational Administration 

tions and advice before nominating teachers for any school. 
There is a growing impression that it is wiser to give the 
Superintendent the power of nomination while the board 
officially makes the appointment rather than to give the 
Superintendent the absolute power. This insures the support 
of the board and enables them to stand in the public eye as 
approving and supporting the policies of the Superintendent. 

Appointment and Dismissal of Teachers. — The dismissal of 
teachers who are found to be undesirable from temperament 
or character or who have failed to perform acceptable service, 
is a matter of great dehcacy and fraught with difficulty. The 
proper order of action would require that the Superintendent 
should be thoroughly convinced that a change is necessary, 
and should then gain the approval of the board before taking 
action. In short, I believe that it should be provided by 
statute that the Superintendent can dismiss teachers only upon 
ratification by the board. It would, of course, be possible to 
give the one dismissed the right of appeal to the board, but 
the former course would seem to be safest and most produc- 
tive of justice and good understanding. 

Courses of Study. — Another important function of the 
Superintendent is the preparation of the courses of study. 
Here, again, the Superintendent should have a free hand. If 
he is wise, he will call to his aid his assistants, supervisors, and 
all teachers. He will treat the curriculum as something that 
is ever growing and expanding. He will not impose it upon 
his teachers as something to be blindly followed, but will wish 
to have it considered as a helpful guide which, at the same 
time, assures reasonable uniformity in the work of the several 
schools. The importance of this aim and the means of 
attaining it are presented in Chapter XVIII. 

Wherever there has been cooperative action and a progres- 
sive development of the curriculum in a school system, there 
has been seen a high degree of spontaneity and loyalty on 
the part of the teaching force in carrying out its provisions. 
It is proper when a new curriculum is made, or when impor- 
tant changes are proposed, that the Board of Education should 
have the opportunity of giving their approval to the same. 



The Superintendent of Public Instruction 235 

But it is not to be supposed that men and women engaged 
in other pursuits than education can be experts or can be 
intrusted with the task of constructing a course of study. 

Superintendent's Council. — Before proceeding to state other 
duties of the Superintendent, it is well to consider his rela- 
tion to those who share with him the executive work of the 
school system. In the school system of a large city, there 
are usually assistant superintendents and supervisors. These 
officers should become a council of which the Superintendent 
is the presiding officer. In a small system the principals of 
schools may be organized in a similar body. By means of 
this council the Superintendent has an excellent opportunity 
of developing and disseminating the principles and purposes 
which belong to his policy. This council will be in session 
frequently. All sorts of questions will be analyzed and dis- 
cussed. The Superintendent will hear patiently and grate- 
fully all the opinions and suggestions which may be put forth. 
He will then decide upon such courses of action as will rec- 
ognize the views of his associates and will at the same time 
be consistent with his own policy. In this council room 
there are developed a body of doctrine and schemes of practice 
which are to be influential in every schoolroom. Here more than 
anywhere else the Superintendent will display his statesman- 
ship and will show his ability to reason as well as to speak, 
to hear advice as well as to make known his decisions, to 
accept gratefully and make use of the suggestions of others, 
while holding his own opinions and acting upon them. 
Through such a central body as this, the highest possible 
unity in the school system is attained, and, gradually, the 
entire staff comes to possess common ideals, common mo- 
tives, and a good degree of uniformity in method. 

This suggests the next great field of effort ; namely, the 
supervision of teaching and the improvement of teachers in 
service. In some towns and cities this includes the direction 
of a local training school, and everywhere it includes the hold- 
ing of teachers' meetings or institutes, by means of which 
teachers are to gain fresh supplies of knowledge and in- 
spiration. In succeeding chapters attention will be given to 



236 Educational Administration 

various kinds of supervisory work, as inspection, criticism, 
the just valuation of teaching, and the manner of aiding 
teachers in the professional growth, for these fill an impor- 
tant place in the Superintendent's list of duties. 

Text-books. — Still another function is the selection of 
proper text-books. Here, also, the Superintendent, while 
possessing large powers, should seek the advice of principals 
and teachers, and should then have the approval of the board 
for such changes as may seem necessary. This topic in its 
many aspects is fully treated elsewhere. 

Classification of Pupils. — The grading and promotion of 
pupils is usually intrusted to principals acting under the 
general direction of the Superintendent. 

Compulsory Laws. — Of growing importance is the sub- 
ject of the enforcement of laws requiring the attendance of 
children at school and the correlative requirement that chil- 
dren be not employed upon harmful or excessive labor at the 
age when they should be at school. Many states are back- 
ward in passing laws regulating the labor of women and chil- 
dren and requiring attendance at school. Obviously, the 
Superintendent, who is a progressive and constructive worker, 
will use his best influence to secure the needed legislation and 
will be active in making such laws effective. 

Social Demands. — So great has been the tide of immigration 
in recent years, and so rapidly are we becoming an industrial 
nation, that provision has to be made for more complete and 
expensive evening and continuation schools than are usually 
to be found. To properly meet this demand, and adjust the 
school system to the needs of children of wage-earners, is a 
severe tax upon the school officials in all our larger communi- 
ties. 

An equally new and pressing demand is provision for the 
physical needs of children, including medical inspection, 
physical culture, and the proper cooperation of parents 
and teachers in securing that individual treatment which 
humanity and sympathy demand. 

The Superintendent must also give increasing attention to 
backward and defective children, of whom there are so many 



The Superintendent of Piiblic Instruction 237 

scattered throughout the classes in our large communities. 
Special classes, special schools, and the removal of confirmed 
cases of mental and moral defect to larger state institutions 
is a duty now devolving upon school boards and their execu- 
tive officers. 

Of equal importance is the separation of confirmed truants 
and insubordinates from their classes, and their training in 
truant or parental schools in such manner as will fit them to 
live and act among right-minded people. 

There are many other social aspects of educational work to 
which the Superintendent cannot be indifferent and of which 
he may not be neglectful. For the educational system in our 
most progressive communities is made to include not merely 
children, but the adult population, and all the culture forces 
within reach are to be taken into account, and their aid is to 
be invoked in securing the highest uplift of intelligence and 
morality of the entire population. 

Other Functions. — In thus enumerating some of the more 
important functions of the School Superintendent, it is to be 
understood that these are only the most conspicuous of his 
duties. Over and above all that has been suggested, there 
is a wide field where his judgment, his energy, and his social 
qualities will have full play. He sustains relations to the 
School Board, to his assistants, principals, and teachers and 
to the community, all of which make demands upon his time, 
his patience, and his ability. Is it not easy to see that from 
an ideal point of view he is the most important citizen in the 
city, and upon him more than any one else depends the wel- 
fare of human society } 

Difficulty of the Task. — The task that confronts him is by 
no means an easy one. If he is not endued with considerable 
power, he is embarrassed by having to wait upon the board and, 
perchance, cannot advance his policies as he would like to do. 
If, on the other hand, he has considerable independent au- 
thority, he is in danger of making mistakes or at least of in- 
curring the adverse judgment of those who are nearest to 
him, and so of finding himself standing alone without the 
moral support either of the board or of the community. 



238 Educational Administration 

Relation to Supervisors and Principals. — Perhaps his most 
important function is that of securing the coordination of the 
various factors in the school system and that degree of coopera- 
tion and helpfulness which is essential to success. He sustains 
relations to assistant superintendents, supervisors, and princi- 
pals, as we have already shown. When he comes to the special 
work of inspection and supervision, there must be no conflict 
of plan in respect to the general aim or the methods of han- 
dling the various subjects in the curriculum. If the Superin- 
tendent and the supervisors of a given subject have different 
views, their differences must not appear before the teachers. 
Either the supervisor must yield to the Superintendent, or the 
Superintendent to the supervisor, or they must agree to com- 
promise and stand for the same thing. The wise Superintend- 
ent will not undertake to force his special views in respect 
to method, except in instances where he is sure that the system 
will suffer unless he does so. 

In any system, large or small, the principal should be a 
large factor. He should have a considerable field of power 
and freedom to work. The highly centralized system will 
have much to answer fot, if it curtails and dwarfs his field of 
action. He is in the line of succession to the schoolmasters 
who have left their impression on the world. To make of 
him a mere mechanical device for operating the great machine 
would be a fatal error. His professional pride, his enthusiasm, 
and his power of initiative in the vital matters of education 
should all be carefully conserved. He should be a leader in 
the small community to which he ministers, and should hold a 
place of dignity and respect among the citizens. 

The value and efficiency of the Superintendent and of the 
system over which he presides are to be seen in the loyalty 
and support of every principal and teacher, — yes, of every 
pupil. Nothing should be sacrificed to make a perfect 
system ; better let the system be sacrificed for the sake of the 
teachers and children. Here, again, it is seen how delicate 
and how pecuHarly difficult is the work of the Superin- 
tendent. 

Appointment and Tenure. — With all these things in mind, 



The Superintende7it of Public Instruction 239 

it is appropriate to ask how the Superintendent should be 
appointed and what should be the extent of his tenure. It is 
easy to say that he should be selected and appointed by the 
board, but that hardly seems to meet the issue, inasmuch as 
many serious mistakes have been made in putting into this 
position persons who were unfitted by temperament and train- 
ing to win success. There was a time when an unsuccessful 
lawyer or clergyman who needed to be rehabilitated was 
placed in charge of the schools. That time has probably 
passed, but there is always danger that a person will gain the 
position through industrious solicitation or through the in- 
fluence of friends. It is popular to object to going out of 
town for a Superintendent, the assumption being that some 
one can be found at home. There have been recent instances 
of cities thrown into a tumult and the schools seriously dis- 
turbed by a lack of wisdom and tact on the part of executive 
officers. If the board in these cases had selected three Su- 
perintendents in other cities of unquestioned standing and 
ability, to nominate one, two, or three candidates from whom 
a selection could be made, the board would have been able 
to act with assurance, and much trouble might have been 
averted. Here, then, lies the remedy for a mediaeval method 
of choosing the Superintendent. Let him be certificated and 
accredited so that the principle considered so important in 
the case of principals and teachers is not wholly ignored in 
filling the higher office. 

Concerning length of tenure there is still much to be de- 
sired. In the larger cities, at present, the length of term for 
the Superintendent is to about an equal extent one, two, three, 
and four years. In New Haven and Peoria it is five years; 
in New York six years ; and in Elizabeth, New Jersey, seven 
years. There are good arguments for making the term of 
office at least five or six years. This permits the newly 
appointed officer to take up his work deliberately, to study 
his field, evolve his policies, and lay strong foundations for 
the accomplishment of good things. He has no temptation 
to force issues or to be spectacular in his management. The 
most satisfactory chapters in the recent history of school 



240 Educational Administration 

administration relate to cities where, under new charters or 
laws, Superintendents have been given larger powers and 
longer tenure. The results in most cases have tended to 
justify such procedure. 

REFERENCES 

Gove, A. Rise of the Superintendent, Ed. 19:519. — Moore. The 
Modern City School Superintendent, Ed. 21:598. — Hinsdale, B. A. 
The American School Superintendent, Ed. Rev. 7 : 42. — Balliet, T. M. 
The Work of City Superintendents, U. S. Bur. of Ed., Circ. of Inf. 1889 : 
no. 2, 182. — White, E. E. Authority of the School Superintendent, N. 
E. A. 1899: 314. — Kendall, C. N. The Management of Special Depart- 
ments, N. E. A. 1904: 271. — Denfield, R. E. The Superintendent as an 
Organizer and Executive, N. E. A. 1900 : 287. — Gorton, C. E. The Super- 
intendent in Small Cities, N. E. A. 1900 : 222. — Sabin, H. Superintendent, 
■ — a Dictator or a Leader? Ed. 20:1. — Confessions of a City School 
Superintendent, World's Work, 4:2153. — Bradley, J. E. The Superin- 
tendentand the Teacher, U. S. Bur. of Ed., Circ. of Inf 1888 : 6, 135. — Blod- 
gett, A. B. The Most Effective Use of the Superintendent's Time, N. E. A. 
1903 : 224. — Edson, A. W. Leadership in the Superintendent, Ed. 24 : 65. 
— Thurber, C. H. Principles of School Organization. Worcester, 1903. 
• — Prince, J. T. School Administration. Syracuse, 1906. — Gilbert, C. B. 
The School and its Life. Boston, 1906. — Jones, L. H. The Province of 
the Supervisor, N. E. A. 1897 : 217. Report of the Educational Commis- 
sion of Cleveland for 1906. — Hill, L W. Expert Supervision, N. E. A. 
1904 : 321. — Reynolds, A. E. The Assistant to the Superintendent, N. E. 
A. 1904 : 264. — Chancellor, W. E. Our Schools. Boston, 1903. — Draper, 
A. S. School Organization in Cities, N. E. A. 1894 : 298. — Harris, W. T. 
School Superintendence in Cities, N. E. A. 1890: 318. 



CHAPTER XV 

The Teaching Staff 

Teachers in the United States. — The Report of the United 
States Commissioner of Education for 1906 indicates that 
during the year 1905- 1906 there were in the common schools 
of the various states 466,063 teachers, of whom 23.6 per cent 
were men. Since 1 869-1 870 the increase in the population of 
the United States has been 118 per cent, and the increase in 
the number of common school teachers 128 per cent. In 
1 869-1 870 men constituted 38.7 per cent of the teaching force 
as against 23.6 per cent in i960 ; or, since the former date, 
the absolute number of men teaching in common schools has 
increased only 41 per cent, while the absolute number of 
women has increased 190 per cent. 

Of these teachers 26.3 per cent were teaching in cities 
of a population exceeding 4000, and 73.7 per cent in places of 
less population. The census of 1900 shows that the relative 
number of people in cities of 4000 and upward was 39 per 
cent of the total, so that in proportion to population there are 
about half as many more teachers in rural districts and villages 
as in cities. Of the city teachers (including principals, super- 
intendents, and special instructors in pubHc day schools) less 
than 8 per cent were men, showing that the non-urban schools 
have a larger proportion of men than the urban schools. 

In the Public High Schools there were, in 1904- 1905, 28,461 
teachers, of whom 13,440, or about 47 per cent, were men. 
Since 1 889-1 890 the number of teachers in public high schools 
has increased from 9120 to 28,461, or an increase of 212 per 
cent. In 1 889-1 890 the percentage of men teachers was less 
than 43, showing in this field an increase of the proportion of 
men, which coincides somewhat with the rapid increase in 
small high schools in recent years. 
K 241 



242 Educational Administration 

Training. — No satisfactory statistics exist showing the 
professional character of this vast teaching body. It would 
be highly interesting to know how much of professional 
training, how much of experience, and how much of 
movement from one school to another they represent. 
It may be assumed on the imperfect evidence available 
that only a small part of the teaching force of the various 
states has had professional training ; that among both 
men and women teachers the period of service of a large 
majority is comparatively short — a matter of one, two, or 
four years ; and that especially in rural and village schools 
there is little stability of tenure, whether voluntary or involun- 
tary, on the part of those employed. 

The Percentage of Trained Teachers, of course, is a variable 
quantity in the different states, depending on the local de- 
velopment of education, the ability of the state to hold its 
best teachers in view of the salaries paid, and the provision 
of facilities for professional training. It has been crudely 
estimated that about 100,000 new teachers are required each 
year in the schools of the various states to supply increases 
required and to make up for deficiencies caused through death 
and withdrawal from the profession.^ In 1905-1906 there 
were reported to the Commissioner of Education statistics 
showing that from the public and private normal schools 
10,996 students had graduated. Six hundred and twenty-two 
colleges and universities in the same year conferred degrees 
upon 16,418 students, of whom only a small part, of course, 
entered teaching, and of these only a small percentage had 
obtained professional training. In 1904 Massachusetts had 
46 per cent of professionally trained teachers, the percentage 
having almost doubled in twenty years ; while in Connecticut 
the percentage rose from 10 in 1885 to 45 in 1904. Of 7797 
teachers in the elementary schools of California in 1904, 2875 
reported themselves as graduates of some institution for the 
special preparation of teachers, indicating that 37 per cent 
had had some professional preparation. 

1 In Indiana over twenty per cent of all teachers withdraw from teaching each 
year; in Iowa the proportion is still larger. 



The Teaching Staff 243 

"Perhaps, averaging all the different states of the Union, 15 to 20 per 
cent of all the teachers in our schools have received some special training be- 
fore entering upon the work of a teacher. The remaining 80 to 85 per 
cent have been prepared by private study, and tested wholly by examina- 
tion and experience, and have no special preparation whatever for the work 
of teaching. " ^ 

Service. — It is well known that teachers who remain in the 
profession for a considerable length of time ultimately tend 
to seek positions in cities, where living conditions are more 
attractive, salaries better, and tenure more secure. Hence 
the figures compiled by the Commissioner of Education in 
the Report for 1904 showing length of service, and length of 
tenure in the present place, for teachers in cities of 8000 
population can hardly be called significant or conclusive as 
exhibiting general conditions ; nevertheless, as showing the 
situation in cities they are suggestive. These figures^ show 
that of the teachers in the cities reporting, 17 per cent of the 
men and 26 per cent of the women had taught less than five 
years ; 21 per cent of the men and 27 per cent of the women 
five years and more, but less than ten ; 1 8 per cent of the men 
and 19 per cent of the women ten years or more, and less 
than fifteen; 13 per cent of the men and 12 per cent of the 
women 15 years or more, but less than twenty ; 10 per cent 
of the men and 8 per cent of the women twenty or more, and 
less than twenty-five years ; 8 per cent of the men and 4 per 
cent of the women twenty-five or over, and less than thirty 
years ; 5 per cent of the men and 3 per cent of the women 
thirty or over, and under thirty-five years ; and 6 per cent of 
the men and 2 per cent of the women over thirty-five years. 
The median age-length of the service of men was between 
twelve and thirteen years, and for women between nine 
and ten years. Recalling that many cities procure their 
teachers from smaller places where they have already served 
a more or less long apprenticeship, and taking into account 
facts of common observation, it is evident that the personnel 
of the teaching force changes rapidly from year to year. In 
some normal schools it is found that the average teaching 

1 Cubberley, The Certification of Teachers, p. 8. 
^ Report of Commissioner of Education, 1904: 1280. 



244 Educational Administration 

career of the graduates is in the neighborhood of four 
years. 

Sex. — Of the teachers graduating from the public and 
private schools of all the states in 1904-1905 less than 14 per 
cent of the total number (9274) were men. In the North 
Atlantic states 17 per cent, and in the Western states less 
than 1 1 per cent, were men. 

Direction. — - The work of the great body of teachers is 
inspected and directed by a body of principals, supervisors, 
and superintendents who are, as a rule, the most successful of 
the teachers. Only a small percentage of these have had spe- 
cial professional training for their directive work, but they usu- 
ally do represent long experience of a successful kind. Many 
teachers who have determined to remain in the profession 
seek positions of leadership, and so it happens that in the su- 
pervising body, while there may not be more special training, 
there is found more stability of tenure and greater reach of 
experience than in the rank and file of the teaching force. 
The percentage of men in supervisory capacity is also much 
larger than in other fields of teaching, though women already 
are filling many of these positions creditably ; but many men 
will or can afford to remain in the profession only if they ob- 
tain the better compensation which attaches to the higher 
positions. 

General Characteristics. — The effect, then, is that the Amer- 
ican teaching force may be regarded as a large body of 
teachers, mostly women, of relatively short experience, only 
a small percentage having professional training, frequently 
shifting about, and not remaining long in the profession ; but 
whose work is organized and directed by a supervising body, 
mostly men, who have had considerable experience, and who 
have relatively secure tenure. In city schools the experience 
and stability of teachers increase, as does the organization 
of supervision ; while in the rural districts supervision is at a 
minimum, and here tenure is most uncertain, and the amount 
of experience possessed by the teachers is slight. Country 
schools, however, frequently obtain professionally trained 
teachers, since most normal graduates, outside of the city 



The Teaching Staff 245 

training schools, serve an apprenticeship in the country pre- 
paratory to location in the city. 



I. EXAMINATION AND CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 

In the evolution of education in the states it early became 
the function of some authority to pass on the fitness of candi- 
dates for teaching positions. The teacher of the community 
school must be a person of good character, and must have 
an intellectual equipment sufficient to enable him to instruct 
the children in that which they did not know. Out of this 
demand has arisen the system of examination and certifica- 
tion. For a long period after many teachers began to receive 
special training for their work, it was still customary to sub- 
ject the graduates of the professional schools to examinations 
not unlike those taken by candidates with no special prepara- 
tion. Only recently has it come to be possible for specially 
trained teachers, in any considerable numbers, to be admitted 
to public school positions directly on exhibiting their creden- 
tials of professional training. 

Local Certification. — The indigenous and local character of 
American public education has also rendered it customary 
for local authorities to refuse to recognize certificates issued 
in other communities, so that, with teachers frequently mov- 
ing about, it was necessary for these to be frequently taking 
examinations. Petty officialism and the desire to favor 
" home supply " of teachers have also been responsible for 
perpetuating the practice of having newcomers, no matter 
with what credentials, submit to examination. Furthermore, 
as a supposed means of protection to the schools, it has long 
been customary to issue certificates which should be valid for 
only a limited period. Holders of low-grade certificates were 
regularly obliged to take frequent examinations. But with 
certificates of different grades, good for varying periods, a 
premium was put on the better scholastic preparation, which 
would give a higher certificate valid for a longer period or 
even for life. 



246 Educational Administration 

The Effect of the Primitive Stages in the development of 
examination and certification are still widely found. Origi- 
nally laymen gave the examinations, and it is still true that 
in Massachusetts and Connecticut lay boards are authorized 
to pass upon teachers' qualifications. The original exam- 
ination was largely oral, but this has usually given way to 
the written. Originally it was conducted by one person, and 
this is yet the case in places; but the tendency has grown to 
have a board prepare questions and mark papers rather than 
an individual. There is still much of local exclusiveness, 
both in town and county, in the recognition of certificates, 
but gradually a system of interrecognition is growing, by 
which one county or state recognizes as valid the certificates 
issued by another. State centralization of examinations is a 
growing fact, as is also the compulsory recognition of cre- 
dentials of professional training within the same state, or 
even in other states, without further examination. The State 
Superintendent of South Dakota reported in 1906 the results 
of an investigation of interstate recognition of certificates. 
He corresponded with all the states, finding some indifferent 
to such recognition and others hampered by legal restrictions, 
but a considerable number disposed to facilitate progress in 
this direction. Among those states allowing some form of 
recognition of certificates of other states, especially life 
diplomas and diplomas of graduation of normal schools and 
other accredited institutions, were: Arizona, California, Idaho, 
Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, 
New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Utah, 
Vermont, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. 

Educators are generally agreed that in the interest of 
education certain principles should prevail with regard to the 
certification of teachers. Among these are: — 

a. Certification only by experts. 

b. Recognition without examination of credentials of pro- 
fessional preparation. 

c. Specialization of certification. 

d. Local tests should be supplemental. 

a. Examination by Experts. — All tests should be imposed 



The Teaching Staff 247 

by experts and should be designed to be genuine tests of 
teaching ability. Certification by laymen is impossible from 
this point of view, as would be also, in most cases, certifica- 
tion by a county superintendent chosen by popular vote. 
This principle favors the centralization of examinations, at 
least so far as preparation of questions and review of marking 
of papers is concerned, for county or state authorities are far 
more apt to represent professional qualifications for this work 
than local bodies. It favors the recognition of diplomas 
issued by schools which are themselves subject to inspection 
by educational authorities. It favors not only the written ex- 
amination, but requires that this be supplemented by other 
tests, as oral examinations, credit allowed for successful ex- 
perience, and actual teaching under oversight, where these are 
possible. It recognizes that no written examination can be 
devised which is an entire or even a fairly full test of the 
teacher's real ability to do that special work which lies before 
her. 

b. Professional Preparation should be encouraged on the 
part of teachers, a premium should be put on successful ex- 
perience, qualifications for special kinds of work should be 
recognized, and provision be made for a probationary period. 
This principle provides for the issuance of short-term and 
low-grade certificates for local use on the part of those enter- 
ing the profession, but involves the necessity of having 
these certificates non-renewable and not recognized beyond 
the place of their issuance. But certificates issued for sound 
scholarship after sufficient tested experience to be rec- 
ognized as having met probationary requirements should be 
long-termed and widely recognized. Encouragement must be 
given to professional training by certification on suitable cre- 
dentials without examination, and practice teaching should 
be recognized as having fulfilled probationary requirements. 
For interstate recognition, the state board should act as a 
body to accredit training institutions in other states, or other 
examining bodies. 

c. Specialization. — Under modern conditions, fitness for 
teaching is specialized, so that a certification system should 



248 Educational Administration 

recognize many special lines of preparation. The following 
classes may be distinguished: kindergarten, elementary, 
high school, special, supervisory, and state life supervisory 
certificate. But in the course of time undoubtedly the stand- 
ards will have to be adjusted so as to test various qualities in 
proportion as they are demanded of the teacher. Secondary 
school-teachers are all specialists, and their examinations or 
credentials should separately show their general culture, their 
special academic preparation in the subjects they desire to 
teach, and their professional preparation in theory and prac- 
tice of education. The proportions of these various ingredi- 
ents in professional preparation will have to vary greatly with 
the special work sought by the teacher. The teacher of 
manual art or vocational subjects will necessarily have less of 
the kind of general culture that is demanded of the grade 
teacher or the teacher of history or literature in the high 
school. The academic preparation expected of the grade 
teacher will differ in kind and quality from that demanded 
of the kindergartner, though from the latter may be required 
certain proofs of musical and artistic culture that it would 
be undesirable to insist on in the former. The enforcement 
of this principle will entail an examination of the various kinds 
of training given in the preparation of the teacher. For 
example, a modern tendency is to insist on high school gradu- 
ation as preparation for normal school study ; but in many 
quarters it is seriously doubted whether academic instruction 
as given in the contemporaneous high school is of genuine 
value in the preparation of the elementary teacher, except in 
so far as it serves as a selective agency, eliminating the natu- 
rally poor and inefficient students. This principle also con- 
templates the development of new forms of professional 
certification where distinctly modern fields of professional 
activity have evolved. This is conspicuously found in the 
matter of professional supervision of instruction at the pres- 
ent time, where the development of a special supervisory 
certificate would act as a decided stimulus in the evolution of 
special preparation for this important function. 
d. Supplemental Tests. — Granting the general prevalence 



The Teaching Staff 249 

of a system of certification, cities and other localities should 
be allowed to provide additional, but not substitute, tests as a 
means of local selection or to provide for the filling of places 
in an impersonal and automatic way. These additional tests 
should be based on professional scholarship, qualities of ex- 
perience and general scholarship. 

The Chief Problem in the testing of teachers at present 
relates to physical and social fitness. Strength, health, and 
certain qualities of personality are, in teaching, of an importance 
only secondary to those of scholastic fitness. Superintendents 
and others who employ teachers, apply crude tests based on 
observation and experience ; but the reliability of these is 
comparable to that of the scholastic examinations of the old- 
time lay " school trustees." In time it will be necessary to 
develop more discriminating methods, and especially to apply 
tests to young people in preparation for teaching, so that the 
unfit may be excluded from training before they shall have 
given too much time. Only thus can the standard of the 
profession be kept up to its proper level. 



2. SELECTION AND APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS 

The process of certification guards the interest of the 
state in a general way in regard to the professional qualifica- 
tions of those who would teach. But from the number 
of certificated teachers it is necessary that educational 
authorities make appointments for particular posts, and in 
this there is much opportunity for selection and adaptation. 
Systems of appointment affect both the schools and the 
teaching profession ; for if teachers are appointed to the 
choicer positions on other grounds than strict merit and spe- 
cial qualifications for the post, the schools suffer, and other 
teachers, feeling that the method of selection does not put 
a premium on ability, have their professional ideals lowered 
and their interest in education diminished. 

Appointment by Laymen. — It has been shown that tradition- 
ally the local school board certificated teachers, but that in 



250 Educational Administration 

the course of time this function has passed largely to other 
hands. In the matter of the appointment of teachers, it has 
remained true that the local authority is finally responsible. 
The most important function of all boards whether of cities 
or of non-urban communities is to select and appoint the 
teachers for the schools. In some large cities, the Board of 
Education has delegated this function more or less fully to 
the Superintendent ; and in a few a system of competitive 
examination, with automatic appointment of those standing 
highest on the list, has replaced the system of personal selec- 
tion. But speaking generally of American schools, appoint- 
ments to the teaching force are made by the lay boards elected 
directly or indirectly by the people. In this phase of school 
administration there has been almost no centralization of 
authority. 

The exceptions to the method of appointment by the Board 
of Education are the following : — 

a. Nomination by County Superintendent. — In rural schools, 
especially where educational interest is strong and teachers, 
perhaps, not over-plentiful, the County Superintendent, if he 
has the confidence of the people, will be an active adviser in 
the selection of teachers. Local boards, if not personally in- 
terested in the fortunes of some applicant, will consult him, 
and very often follow his recommendations. Where interest 
is strong enough to make the election of genuinely strong 
County Superintendents customary, and boards are desirous 
of selecting the most competent teachers for their schools, 
the unofficial power of that officer may become very strong. 
This applies mainly to Northern and Western states, since in 
those Southern states where county government of schools 
prevails, the County Superintendent, as agent of the board, 
has even greater power officially and otherwise. 

b. Committee Appointment. — In cities with large boards 
the appointment of teachers may be delegated to a committee 
of the board. This system has the same defects as a system 
of appointment by Board of Education. 

c. Superintendent as Adviser. — In a considerable number 
of cities the Superintendent acts in an advisory capacity with 



The Teaching Staff 251 

the board, and if local educational interest is good and the 
personality of the Superintendent commanding, his voice will 
have much weight. In 233 cities and towns investigated in 
Massachusetts by Mr. Prince,^ it was reported that in 21 the 
Superintendent had full powers in the appointment of teach- 
ers, "joint " powers in 60, "advisory" powers in 89, and no 
power in 45. The remainder gave uncertain answers. 

d. Superintendent as Appointing Authority. — The board 
may by rule, or (as in Ohio) under the state law, yield its 
power of appointing teachers to the Superintendent. Only 
infrequently does the board retain no right of veto or ap- 
proval in this matter ; but in an increasing number of cities 
all nominations or initial recommendations must be made by 
the Superintendent, and the board can only confirm or reject 
his nominations. The result of an inquiry answered in 1904 
by Superintendents in loi cities of the United States showed 
that in 24 per cent the rules of the board place in the hands 
of the Superintendent the authority and obligation of nomi- 
nating or recommending teachers, the board only retaining 
the right to confirm or reject; while in 17 per cent the Super- 
intendent is reported as "advising" or "consulting" with 
the Board of Education or its committee in the matter of 
selecting teachers. In most of the remaining cities the Super- 
intendent has no direct authority, the election being entirely 
in the hands of committees of the Board of Education. 

e. Competitive Selection. — A system of competitive or 
" civil service " examinations may be provided, so that the 
selection of teachers becomes largely impersonal. But usually 
the examination is intended to produce an "eligible list" of 
greater or less length, from which the Superintendent or 
other authorities may select appointees. This lends some 
flexibility. In New York, for example, an appointment must 
be made from the three candidates standing highest on the 
eligible list. This system is found in a relatively small num- 
ber of cities like Lowell, New York, Albany, and San Fran- 
cisco. In each the selection is not entirely automatic, since 
provision is made for an oral examination which takes account 

1 School Administration, p. 256. 



252 Educational Administration 

of the personality of the candidate, and in some cases credit 
is allowed for previous experience. 

The Problem of Selecting and Appointing Teachers. — In 
the primitive and the crude stages of the development of 
public education, when there were few trained teachers, and 
when the demands made on the schools were simple, the 
selection of teachers by lay boards worked well. These were 
usually composed of the best of representative citizens who 
were good judges of the general qualities of character and 
personality which entered into the making of a fairly success- 
ful teacher. A simple examination served to test the scho- 
lastic attainments. The Board of Education or school committee 
knew better than any one else the peculiar local conditions 
which the teacher had to meet, and made choice accordingly. 
The long continuance of this system led to the fixing of tra- 
ditions in the appointment of teachers which give way very 
slowly to the pressing necessities of changed conditions. As 
indicated above, only in some larger cities and in one state 
have the methods of selection and appointment been funda- 
mentally changed. 

The Traditional System of appointment has some merits 
and, in a progressive and advanced system of public educa- 
tion, many defects. But some of the defects are obvious and 
easily recognized, and others are deep-seated and obscure. 
All history of American education, for example, recognizes 
the abuses of partisanship, political and religious, which have 
widely and frequently characterized the appointments of teach- 
ers ; it is well known that here and there and at sundry times 
educational committees have fostered nepotism, have favored 
local as against outside candidates, and have even accepted 
bribes in the making of appointments. " Pull " and " graft " 
have had their place hardly less conspicuously in public edu- 
cation than in other branches of the public service. And yet 
it is probably true that the relative amount of this favoritism 
and corruption has not been large, nor has it, in the direct 
sense, except in a few periods and localities, greatly lowered 
educational efficiency. 

Defects of System of Appointment by Laymen. — But the 



The Teaching Staff 253 

system of appointment above described has probably much 
more fundamental disadvantages to educational advancement. 
It greatly influences the educational and professional stand- 
ards of those who take up teaching ; it determines ultimately 
the standards of educational compensation and so the effi- 
ciency of the force ; and it also affects the morale of the force 
actually employed. The lowering of educational ideals thus 
made inevitable and the promotion of educational inefficiency 
brought about have been much more serious than all the evils 
attributable to the wilful partisanship, or even corruption of 
members of boards of education. 

Inexpertness of Laymen. — For it is certain that only up to 
a certain point can the layman, however honest, and however 
capable in the general sense, act as a competent judge of 
teaching merit. Beyond that point he is incapable of making 
effective demands, unless he is disposed to accept the judg- 
ment and recommendations of some expert. Consequently 
the perpetuation of the older method of selecting teachers 
has tended to discourage professional training, since that 
training was not recognized at its true worth by those respon- 
sible for the selection of teachers ; it tended to exalt certain 
qualities of personal appearance and good fellowship far be- 
yond their true value in teachers ; it failed to recognize the 
finer shades of professional efficiency, and so could not put a 
premium on intellectual growth after entry upon the profes- 
sion. Having thus perpetuated mediocre standards, the edu- 
cational system naturally failed to attract or to hold large 
numbers of those who had special ability and who demanded 
recognition of their special worth which they could not find 
in the teaching profession. 

The inability of boards to discriminate as to the deeper fac- 
tors of professional preparation has tended always to make 
boards select, among candidates apparently of equal merit, 
that one who could be obtained for the least outlay of money. 
In this way the standards of compensation have been kept 
low, and consequently both the quality and the preparation of 
those entering the teaching profession. 

Maintenance of Standards. — In many respects, not the 



254 Educational Administration 

system of certification, but the system of appointment, consti- 
tutes the gateway to teaching ; and it is at this gateway that 
standards can be maintained which shall ultimately determine 
the character of the profession itself. Hence it is that the 
problem of appointment is fundamentally important in educa- 
tional administration. And withal it is necessary that deep- 
seated and socially valuable traditions of democratic control 
be observed. It would be easy enough to centralize the 
appointment of teachers in some state body, as is done in 
European countries (cf. Prussia and France); but, granting 
the efficiency of such a system, it would appear to be at too 
great variance with American political traditions. It is in- 
deed probable that under a centralized bureaucracy we should 
have even more of a repression of standards than prevails at 
the present time. 

Nomination by Superintendent. — It will have been felt that 
the experience of some cities has already produced something 
of a solution of this problem. The Board of Education, really 
interested in the educational progress of the city, has finally 
realized that it could not effectively select teachers, so it has 
delegated this function to the Superintendent, directly or in- 
directly. But owing to the responsibility of the Superintend- 
ent to the board, he is prevented from exercising arbitrary 
power or of building up a system of bureaucratic control. To 
the educational expert is given the responsibility and author- 
ity, but the reins of final power still remain with the people 
or with the elected representatives of the people. The fact 
that the Superintendent himself is elected for an indefi- 
nite term of " good behavior," or, better, for a fairly long, but 
definite, term makes him responsible both to the board and to 
the community and effectively checks abuses of his power and 
authority. 1 

Selection of Superintendent. — The Superintendent himself 
must, of course, be selected by the Board of Education ; and 

1 In at least one American city the nominations for teaching places are made 
by the principal and Superintendent jointly. Much can be said in favor of a 
system which would give the principal formal recognition in the matter of 
appointing teachers. 



The Teaching Staff 255 

the query will naturally arise as to how the board can do this 
more effectively than it can perform the business of selecting 
the teacher. For the present, the quahties demanded of the 
superintendent are to a considerable extent not the results of 
training, but are personal and produced by experience, and 
these the business men of a board can judge somewhat better 
than they can pass on the qualifications of teachers ; but in 
the course of time supervision itself will become a profession, 
requiring long and careful preparation, and then the average 
board will be confronted with the same difficulties that are 
now encountered in the selection of teachers. Under these 
conditions it can safely be said that a board will not act 
wisely in the selection of its trained supervisors unless it is 
disposed, and the community demands, that it seek expert 
counsel. In other words, the board itself must, in filling these 
responsible positions, in effect seek nominations from author- 
ities who are in turn experts in judging of professional ability. 
It may be that it will be difficult to make such requirements 
of legal effect ; but they are even now of full moral effect 
wherever the selection of administrative officers by lay 
boards is appraised at its full importance. But much can be 
done through publicity of one sort and another, of the kind 
that now prevails in England and Scotland, in the matter of 
the appointment of educational experts.^ 

3. TENURE OF OFFICE AND DISMISSAL 

Only second to methods of appointment in their effect 
on the teaching staff is the matter of tenure and dismissal. 
The well-established tradition in the American school system 
is that the teacher may contract for a year of service, but 
beyond that he may be refused reelection, if not satisfactory 
to the authorities. In the rural schools of the United States, 

^ In these countries when a Board of Education or other responsible authority 
has to select a head-master or other expert, it is customary to advertise for ap- 
plications, specifying salary and requirements. Candidates send in recommenda- 
tions and credentials which receive consideration in general meeting. Naturally 
the employing authorities are much influenced by the recommendations of experts 
in education. 



256 Educatiojial Administration 

especially, the shifting of teachers is very common. It has 
become habitual on the part of many boards to expect to look 
up a new teacher at the opening of each new year. Much 
of this movement, of course, is due to the teachers themselves. 
From the rural schools they are gravitating toward the 
centres of population or are leaving the profession. An 
unpublished study made in 1902 in California, on the basis of 
data furnished by the county superintendents, showed that 
thirty-nine per cent of the rural and village school places 
were filled anew each year, and it was estimated that in about 
half of these the teachers would have been glad to return if 
the board of trustees or patrons were not in opposition. 

Annual Election. — In the great majority of city schools 
the system of annual reappointment still prevails and is 
defended by many superintendents as conducive to the good 
of the educational interests of the cities. If teachers are 
given long term or permanent appointment, subject only to 
dismissal for unprofessional conduct or incapacity, it can be 
shown by the experience of many cities that under present 
conditions of supervision, dismissal will be practicable in 
exceedingly few cases, even where incapacity or defect of 
character is notorious. The reasons for this lie in the great 
difficulty of proving legally that a given teacher is incapaci- 
tated. If popular sympathy is aroused, the Superintendent 
and Board of Education are usually quite unwilling to face the 
opposition that gathers in defence of the teacher who is only 
relatively inefficient. Hence, all things considered, it is be- 
lieved by many superintendents that the system of annual 
reelection is the best, because it permits low-grade teachers 
to be dropped from the force without any public disturbance. 

Permanent Election. — In a few cities, owing to special 
charter provisions, teachers can only be dismissed for cause, 
and, of course, the action of the board may be reviewed in 
the courts. In San Francisco and New York, for example, 
the effect of a number of decisions, reversing the action of 
the board and even compelling it to pay large sums of " back 
pay," has undoubtedly had the effect of making the boards 
afraid to undertake the removal of teachers. The effect of 



The Teaching Staff 257 

this condition, especially in cities where there is no pension 
fund, and no age of compulsory retirement, is withering on 
the schools. 

Appointment for Term of Years. — It is very uncommon to 
find legal provisions for the appointment of teachers for a 
longer term than one year ; on the other hand, prohibitions 
on term appointments longer than one year are common. 
The new school law for Ohio, however, permits the Board of 
Education of any city school district to appoint a Superintend- 
ent for a term not longer than five years, and teachers for 
terms not longer than three years. During such period the 
teacher is protected from dismissal for insufficient cause; but 
at the end of that term, of course, the board is at liberty to 
select some one else. In many cities it has become custom- 
ary to give by law a longer term to the Superintendent of 
Schools. 

Uncertainty of Tenure. — In nearly all cities having well- 
organized systems the actual tenure of most of the teachers 
is fairly secure. Public opinion has compelled the board to 
retain the services of all those who have performed reasonably 
good service, and where conditions are stable teachers may 
be sure of reelection from year to year. But in many places 
where political or personal considerations affect to an extent 
the action of the board, the time of annual reelection comes 
to be viewed by many teachers with anxiety. This is espe- 
cially true of those of only average ability, or those who have 
not obtained a personal following in their cities, who have 
no political influence. It seems probable that the amount of 
disturbance caused in the teaching force by the annual re- 
election is very considerable. Other factors in educational 
administration would naturally affect this. A large board 
open to personal appeals and inclined to nepotism ; an in- 
fluential Superintendent disposed to be vindictive or too hasty 
in forming judgments; a community where political or reli- 
gious considerations had produced changes in the personnel 
of the board — all these would contribute to the general un- 
settling of confidence on the part of the teachers, and might 
render them apprehensive and disposed to seek "influence " 



258 Educational Admmistj^ation 

to help them to retain their positions. It is freely claimed by 
many men who leave the profession that they do so because 
of the instability, or, at least, uncertainty, of tenure under the 
conditions of the annual reelection. Not being assured of 
his place, the man feels loath to become a holder of property 
or to assume responsibilities which would bring him loss and 
discomfort in case he were to fail of election. On the other 
hand, it is evident that the possibility of losing a position on 
account of inefficiency will, or ought to, serve to keep teach- 
ers intent on improving their professional capacity, especially 
under supervision that can discriminate as to that capacity. 

The Problem of Tenure and Dismissal. — The building up 
of a stable and growing profession undoubtedly demands dif- 
ferent conditions of tenure and dismissal from those which 
to-day prevail in most American states. A conspicuous edu- 
cational fact in the European countries which have developed 
excellent school systems is the relative fixity of tenure en- 
joyed by educators who have stood the preliminary tests of 
scholarship and experience. The absence of a pension system, 
the uncertainty of tenure, the dependence of teachers on forms 
of influence other than those of teaching merit in holding 
to desirable positions, undoubtedly all contribute to the rela- 
tively low place of the teaching profession in American states, 
and especially its failure to attract competent men in larger 
numbers. Every state furnishes abundant evidence of the 
imperfections of the traditional systems of tenure. 

On the other hand, it has been noted above that perma- 
nent election during " good behavior and competency " does 
not solve the problem under present conditions of super- 
vision, since the demonstration of inefficiency is too difficult, 
and cannot be understood by the public. The retention be- 
yond their periods of physical efficiency, however much it 
appear to be the desert of the poorly paid and unpensioned 
teachers, can only be viewed as a public calamity when the 
defenceless children of the schools are taken into account. 

Election for a Term of Years. — Obviously the solution of 
the problem depends upon several factors. After a proba- 
tionary period it can hardly be urged that there is good 



The Teaching Staff 259 

ground for not electing teachers for two, four, or six years, 
instead of for one. Efficiency once established, it will not be 
found that teachers will change greatly in the course of a few 
years, but the longer term of election will give a valuable 
degree of security and satisfaction. On the other hand, the 
fact that after a term of years, instead of after one, the teacher 
may simply fail of reelection will certainly provide as much 
stimulus for professional improvement as can be expected 
from this kind of incentive. 

Expert Authority in Dismissal. — The gradual transfer of 
authority to an expert supervisor in the matter of initiating, 
not only elections, but dismissals and failures of reelection, 
will also serve to counteract many prevailing evils. The 
chief weakness of the system of annual election in many 
communities is not that it may result in the refusal to elect 
the competent teacher, or the election of the incompetent, 
but that under board election there may be no real connec- 
tion between reelection and genuine teaching merit ; personal 
and foreign considerations may far outweigh teaching capacity. 
But with responsibility for refusal to elect resting on an ex- 
pert Superintendent, acting under recommendations of prin- 
cipals, the security felt by the capable teacher will be in 
proportion to the efficiency and disinterestedness of the 
system of supervision. Cities now have the machinery for 
expert supervision, and slowly responsibility is being trans- 
ferred to the right authorities ; but rural communities still in 
most states lack expert supervision of education, and there it 
must be developed.^ 

The Stability of the Teaching Profession will also depend 
largely on the development of a system of pensions. After 
the experimental years when the teacher shall have found his 
place, if the possibilities of a pension are in view, there will 

^ " The Board of Education in each city school district shall appoint a suitable 
person to act as Superintendent of the public schools of the district for a term 
not longer than five school years, the term to begin within four months of appoint- 
ment. Said Superintendent shall . . . become . . . empowered to appoint, sub- 
ject to the approval and confirmation of the board, all the teachers, and he may 
for cause suspend any person thus appointed until the board or a committee of 
the board may consider such suspension." — Ohio School Laws, 1907. 



26o Educational Administration 

be greater incentive to remain in one locality and to grow in 
professional capacity. This desire will also ultimately affect 
the board and compel it to remove or refuse to elect teachers 
only for reasons that will stand publicity and the criticisms of 
educational experts. 

Final Jurisdiction, — In those communities where the evil 
effects of permanent tenure are keenly felt, it is generally 
thought that, for the purpose of effecting the removal of an 
incompetent or otherwise undesirable teacher, the Board of 
Education, acting under the recommendation of its experts, 
should have final jurisdiction, except in extreme cases of vio- 
lation of the legal rights of the teacher. In any teaching 
force, and especially where the term of contract is increased, 
the right of removal must be sedulously guarded in the in- 
terests of the children. But such right of removal must also 
protect the teacher. These two ends can be met only by 
throwing upon the supervisory authorities responsibility for 
establishing, from the point of view of educational experts, 
professional unfitness or fitness. In this connection it is 
usually safer to foster and aid publicity rather than to shun 
it, both as to fact and as to expert opinion.^ 

4. teachers' salaries 

The effects of systems of certification, appointment, and 
tenure in determining the quality of the teaching force have 
been discussed. Another important factor, partly a conse- 
quence, partly a cause of the prevailing conditions in the 
above fields, is the compensation of teachers. One product 
of the indigenous development of education in the various 
states is the widespread tendency to compensate the teacher 
by the month and by the term, and where, as has been largely 
the case, the teacher is employed for only six or seven months, 

1 " Each Board of Education may dismiss any appointee or teacher for in- 
efficiency, neglect of duty, immorality, or improper conduct ; but no teacher 
shall be dismissed by any board unless the charges are first reduced to writing 
and an opportunity be given for defence before the board, or a committee thereof, 
and a majority of the full membership of the board vote upon roll-call in favor 
of such dismissal." — Ohio School Laws, Sec. 4017. 



The Teachmg Staff" 261 

it has been natural always to estimate his compensation as a 
monthly payment, and to take no account of his entire yearly 
income. The traditional American teacher has been, in one 
sense, a sort of casual laborer. Along with this has naturally 
persisted the tendency for him to get out of this uncertain 
career as speedily as possible, and to return to it only in times 
of stress. 

Low Compensation of Teaching. — It is generally conceded 
that the compensation of teachers in the various states is 
low. The Commissioner of Education shows in his report 
for 1906 (p. x) that the average monthly wage of male teachers 
for the preceding year, taking most of the states into account, 
was $$6.'^i, which represented an increase of some 25 per 
cent in six years; while for women the monthly wage was 
^43.80, an increase since 1898-1899 of ^5.66, or 15 per cent. 
Taking the states individually, the average monthly compen- 
sation of men and women teachers combined was reported as 
less than 1^30 in Virginia and Alabama ; as ranging from ^30 
to ^35 in one New England state (Maine) and four South 
Atlantic states (North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and 
Mississippi). It was less than 1^40, but above ^35, in New 
Hampshire, Vermont, West Virginia, and Florida. In only 
three of the North Central states (Indiana, Illinois, and Wis- 
consin) was this average over ^50, and only in Texas and 
Maryland of the South Atlantic and South Central states did 
it reach ^50. In all of the Western states except Oregon the 
average was over ^50. 

In the foregoing are commonly included the salaries of 
principals, who are usually men. Possibly a fairer view of 
compensation might be obtained from the salaries of women. 
Of forty-two states and territories reporting, it appears that 
the average monthly compensation of women teachers is : in 
Maine, Virginia, and Alabama, under ^30 per month ; in all 
the Southern states except Texas, Oklahoma, and Indian 
Territory, under ^40; in all the states of the North Central 
division, over $40 and under ^50, except in Illinois ($57-55) 
and Indiana ($53.20). In all the Western states it is over 
$50.00, except in Oregon and Wyoming. 



262 Educational Administration 

Salaries in Cities. — These average salaries do not, how- 
ever, indicate all the conditions. Teachers in city schools 
have higher salaries than do country teachers. The large 
cities of New York, Massachusetts, and Illinois make the 
average monthly compensation for these states appear large. 
In the elaborate report of the committee (of the National 
Educational Association) on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions, 
the amounts paid in cities, villages, and rural districts are in- 
dicated, at least for typical states. It is impossible to briefly 
summarize these statistics, but some facts may be singled out 
for notice. 

In 467 cities investigated, having over 92,000 teachers, it 
was found that the average salary of men teaching in the 
high schools was ^1303 and of women ^903 ; of men teaching 
in the elementary schools $\\6i and of women ^650. Prin- 
cipals, of course, receive considerably better salaries. Of 
the teachers above given, 68,000 were women teaching 
grades, and of these 44 per cent received less than ^600 per 
year. But even here the influence of a few very large and 
wealthy cities greatly affects averages ; for an examination 
of the salaries paid in cities of medium size shows that they 
are considerably smaller than those indicated above. Inves- 
tigations of rural schools and village schools show propor- 
tionately lower salaries in most of the states. 

From the Economic Standpoint of supply and demand, it is 
evident that these salaries are sufficient to procure teachers 
willing to exchange their services for what is offered in return. 
But it is a matter of common observation that a large pro- 
portion of teachers, especially in rural schools, are young 
women, and sometimes young men, who teach, not as a per- 
manent occupation, but temporarily, pending the completion 
of an education or to aid the resources of the family. Where 
the compensation is low, the preparation and natural qualifi- 
cations of those taking up the work will also be low. 
Teachers' salaries have somewhat increased in recent years, 
owing to a growing demand for better service. The relative 
scarcity of men in the profession, from one point of view, is 
not attributable to the meagreness of compensation, for it is 



The Teaching Staff 263 

probable that, with a sufficient lowering of requirements, any- 
state could easily obtain enough men to fill all the schools ; 
but it is rather owing to the fact that a rising standard has 
finally debarred from the schools all but certain types of 
men, and most of these, with their ability and education, can 
find better recompense for their services elsewhere than in 
teaching. 

Salaries of Women. — In most respects, teaching is woman's 
best profession, and it is a convenient one to enter for that 
large number of women who must work, but who will, after 
a few years, assume the responsibilities of a family. Hence 
the constant competition of fairly well-educated women to 
enter teaching and to serve at first for small compensation 
tends to preserve a low salary rate. Inasmuch as the eco- 
nomic law of supply and demand still affects much of our 
thinking, it is difficult to assert the need for advances in 
salary in face of the usually obvious fact that more certifi- 
cated teachers are willing to teach than can find places. Of 
course, when the number of women and men willing to teach 
at the rate offered is less than the demand, salaries will tend 
to rise. 

Development of the Profession. — What is evident with 
regard to the salaries of teachers in most American commu- 
nities is that they are too low to enable the teaching profes- 
sion to develop as it should. Doubtless, at any given moment, 
a marked increase in salaries would not greatly affect the 
efficiency of the teaching force ; but none the less certainly, 
an advanced scale of salaries maintained in the face of com- 
petition would soon tend to draw into the profession men 
and women of better natural qualifications, better prepara- 
tion, and more willingness to devote themselves persistently 
and professionally to their work. Until the time comes when 
society generally recognizes the desirability of maintaining 
levels of prices and wages to some extent independently of 
the economic law of supply and demand, as that is interpreted 
by people concerned mainly with immediate and observable 
wants, the surest grounds on which advances of salary can 
be defended has reference to the matter of improving the 



264 Educational Administration 

effectiveness of the profession. This, of course, is actually 
what takes place in those cities which have come to recognize 
the value of a selected teaching force. A generous salary- 
schedule gives the board and Superintendent the opportunity 
to select the best teachers from among many applicants. 

Recognition of Merit. — If boards of education and other 
authorities responsible for the selection of teachers were 
generally capable of making the finer discriminations as to 
teaching ability, one of the surest ways to advance the com- 
pensation of teachers would be to raise as fast as possible 
the equipment and power of those taking up teaching, but 
only in a limited number of communities can boards yet do 
this, and too often the well-prepared teacher finds himself in 
competition with one not so well qualified, but whose inferi- 
ority is not evident to the administration. 

Minimum of Salary Law. — Outside of cities, one of the 
means adopted to improve compensation has been the so- 
called minimum salary law, by which the state prohibits the 
payment to a teacher of less than a specified monthly sum. 
In foreign continental countries the fixing of minimum (and 
maximum) salaries by law is almost universal. In Amer- 
ica the last ten years has seen the beginning of minimum 
salary regulation in. a number of states.^ Twenty-five years 
ago West Virginia fixed minimum salaries of $iS, ;^22, and 
$2$ per month for the various grades of certificates ; these 
amounts have subsequently been raised to ^25, I30, and $2iS- 
In Pennsylvania under a law valid to 1907, the minimum sal- 
ary was $35 ; in Ohio $4.0 for eight months in the year; in 
North Carolina ^35 for all elementary teachers holding state 
certificates and $40 for all teachers in high schools ; and in 
Maryland it is ^300 per year for every white teacher having 
an average attendance of fifteen pupils or more. 

The new law of Pennsylvania (1907) provides for a mini- 
mum salary of $50 for teachers holding a higher graded cer- 
tificate and having had two years' experience ; and $4.0 for 
others. New Jersey has an extensive minimum salary 
schedule (1907), which is effective in a community only 
1 See Sies, " Legal Regulation of Minimum Salaries," Ed, Rev. 35 : 10. 



The Teaching Staff 265 

after it has been adopted by referendum vote. This sched- 
ule provides fairly liberal annual salaries. The minimum 
salary law of Indiana attempts to fix the minimums as a vari- 
able quantity depending upon grade of certificate, markings 
in examination, and lengths of experience, within some limits. 
This law, it will be observed, attempts to put a premium on 
quality of scholarship. 

Salary Schedules. — The fixing of salary schedules for 
cities by state regulation is uncommon. Newark and Jersey 
City have adopted the minimum salary schedules provided 
for by the state law of New Jersey. In New York, as a 
part of the charter provisions relating to education, passed 
by the state legislature, there is an elaborate minimum salary 
schedule for various classes of positions. The fact that this 
schedule provides different bases for men and for women in 
the same positions has led to considerable controversy. 
Otherwise, since the minimum salaries are high, it has been 
acceptable in most particulars. 

There is a form of salary legislation which, in some cases, 
acts to keep compensation up to an artificial standard. This 
is found in those states which fix the portion of school funds 
which must be devoted to salaries. In California all of the 
state fund, and, by a new regulation, sixty per cent of the 
county fund, must be devoted to salaries. Since no district 
may receive less than ^550, this practically fixes a minimum 
salary of ^60 a month for eight months for the most cheaply 
hired teacher. Under some circumstances, of course, the 
board might pay less and maintain a longer term, but this 
rarely happens. 

Adjustable Salary Schedule. — The wisdom of minimum 
salary legislation is questioned in some quarters. Undoubt- 
edly, it is an interference with the play of economic forces, 
but, if the position assumed above is correct, that considera- 
tions of the permanent welfare of the profession should dic- 
tate interference with economic laws where the wisdom of 
boards is not equal to the task of providing for the needs of 
future development, then such legislation is wise and to be 
encouraged. When graduated according to the capacity and 



266 Educational Administration 

training and even experience of the teacher, it may be made 
a powerful stimulus toward building up a better-trained pro- 
fession. Minimum salary schedules, however, cannot be 
simple ; they must take into account different classes of posi- 
tions and different grades of responsibility in teaching. 

Equal Pay for Men and Women. — In this connection arises 
the vexing question as to whether in any salary schedules 
differences of compensation for men and for women for the 
same work should be recognized. In the New York City 
schedule before alluded to, a considerable difference of mini- 
mum was assigned to men and to women for the same posi- 
tions. In all European countries there is universally a 
considerable difference in favor of the man. The gradual 
withdrawal of men from the teaching profession in America 
has been largely due to the fact that for a given expenditure 
the employing authorities could usually get a more cultured 
and better-trained woman than man. 

It is a widespread belief among educators and other 
students of education that youths, and especially boys, should 
be taught by men as well as by women. The harmfulness of 
having children taught exclusively by women teachers is not 
yet a demonstrated fact, but is strongly held as an opinion, 
so that many boards are willing to offer a considerable 
premium to obtain men for a given place. When salary 
schedules are under consideration, if men are to be obtained 
for grade positions, for example, it seems incumbent upon the 
board to offer more to them than to women, since the living 
expenses of men are more, necessarily, than those of women, 
and men are being constantly tempted into the other callings. 
The typical woman in the teaching profession supports 
herself, primarily, and sometimes relatives incidentally; the 
typical man supports a family primarily, and also other 
relatives no less frequently than the woman teacher. Con- 
sequently the problem of a livelihood for the woman differs 
fundamentally from that for a man. 

Division of Work between Men and Women. — Nevertheless, 
to fix a different grade of payment to a man for doing 
what seems to be identically the same work as a woman, 



The Teaching Staff 267 

is bound to be a constant source of irritation and invidious 
comparison, and is questionable justice. The superiority 
of the man in the individual case is not manifest, however 
necessary, in the abstract, the presence of a considerable 
number of men in the teaching force may be deemed to 
be. It seems probable that some other basis of differentiation 
will have to be devised. Laws or regulations such as prevail 
in Germany, requiring that certain grades or certain studies 
should be taught by men, or that in the upper grades and 
high school men should always constitute a fixed proportion 
of the teaching force, would be fairer and would rest 
less on an individual basis. Having adopted such general 
regulations, it would then become necessary to establish 
salary schedules for the men of a kind which would attract 
and hold the requisite number of the right kind. 

It is customary in all but rural schools to provide for advances 
of salary with maturity of experience, and on other grounds. 
The details of this will be discussed in Chapter XVI. 

5. teachers' pensions 

In American states we find only the beginnings of a 
pension system for teachers. In three, — Maryland, Ohio, 
and New Jersey, — public money may be used to aid in 
the formation of a pension fund. In several, special enact- 
ments have permitted or authorized the formation of annuity 
funds in certain large cities. Among these are St. Louis, 
New York, Boston, Chicago, San Francisco, Poughkeepsie, 
Detroit, Buffalo, Charleston, South Carolina, and Brooklyn. 
In most of these the fund is composed of assessments paid by 
the teachers, usually a certain per cent of the salary received. 
But in New York, fines inflicted on teachers for absence, 
and five per cent of all excise moneys on the sale of liquors 
are turned into it, and in addition it may receive bequests. 
The benefits from these funds vary considerably, but, roughly 
described, they provide a retiring allowance which usually 
has a maximum limit of $600 or less, either with or without 
disability. In some instances sick benefits and funeral 
expenses are provided for. 



268 Educational Administration 

Present Development. — It is generally felt that these local 
associations are preliminary to the ultimate development 
of state pension systems. Because the teacher's compensa- 
tion is low, and because it is difficult, on account of poverty, 
to retire an old teacher who may have reached the limit 
of best usefulness to the schools, it is claimed that a pension 
or annuity system, following the example of European 
countries, should be developed. The state law of Ohio 
provides that the Board of Education of any district may 
create a pension fund which shall be under charge of a 
special board composed partly of members of the Board 
of Education and partly of representatives elected by the 
teachers. The fund is the accumulation of a monthly 
assessment of $2 levied on each teacher, and the beneficiary 
must have had three-fifths of her teaching service in the 
county in which is located the district that makes the 
payment. Only those who have taught twenty years can 
receive the benefits of the pension, which amounts to ^10 
annually for each year of service, and may not exceed ^300. 

New Jersey has (1907) a comprehensive law regarding 
the establishment of a retirement fund for teachers. It 
is to be under charge of a state board, determined by 
act of legislature, which at present consists of three members 
of the State Board of Education, three members elected 
by the State Teachers' Association, and the Superintendent 
of Public Instruction. It is voluntary with teachers to 
become participants. Members are assessed one per cent 
of their salary, except such as have been teaching more 
than ten years, for whom it is two per cent. The pension 
is one-half of the average salary for five years preceding 
retirement, but may not be less than ^250 nor more than 
^600. After twenty years of service teachers become 
entitled to the pension, if disabled; but they must have 
contributed an amount equal to twenty per cent of the 
average salary for the past five years. An entirely different 
act in the New Jersey laws is of interest: — 

"Any school teacher in this state who shall have served as such in 
any school district in this state for forty years consecutively shall, upon 



The Teaching Staff 269 

application to the board having charge of the schools in such district, 
be voluntarily retired from active duty on half pay ; and it shall be the 
duty of the body having charge of finances of said district to provide for 
such payment monthly." 

With a change of two or three words this could be made 
a comprehensive pension law; as it is, it applies to only 
a few individual cases of a very peculiar type. As a form 
of special legislation, it is, of course, most obnoxious ; but, 
as a possible augury of further and broader action along 
the same line, it is of significance. 

The Maryland Law involves no assessment on teachers, but 
the state has provided a fund to meet pension payments. 
" Whenever any person in this state has taught in any of the 
public or normal schools of this state twenty-five years and 
has reached the age of sixty years, and by reason of physical 
or mental disability ... is unable to teach longer," the 
case shall be laid before the State Board of Education. This 
board, at its discretion, may place such person on the retired 
list, where he receives ^200 per year.^ 

In many cases where retirement funds have been built up 
by teachers' associations, bad actuarial calculation has finally 
produced inability to meet the payments promised ; for 
a time those first retiring profited at the expense of the 
younger teachers ; but the depletion of the fund, or its failure 
to produce enough to meet payments, has created much dis- 
satisfaction. 

Problems. — The subject of pensions, of benefit associa- 
tions, and of compulsory insurance is still very much un- 
settled in American education. In Germany a considerable 
part of what is termed the pension is really a form of the 
widespread compulsory insurance which prevails in Germany. 
The state compels the teacher, as it does other workers, to 
provide a fixed portion of their salary for a pension fund.^ 

1 In European pension schemes, the feature of flexibility according to service 
is an important one. In France, under the old law, the teacher paid to the state 
five per cent of his salary and a larger proportion of the first year's salary and of 
each augmentation, for a pension fund. The pension then is one-sixtieth of the 
mean salary of the last six years, for each year of service, and a maximum pension 
of one-half the mean annual salary. 

"^ See John Graham Brooks, Compulsory Insurance in Europe. 



270 Educational Administration 

But compulsory insurance does not seem attractive to Ameri- 
can teachers in its undisguised form. Many young men and 
women, even among those destined to continue permanently in 
the work, take up teaching as a temporary occupation, and 
these have no desire to contribute a portion of their salaries 
to insurance, which they never expect to utilize. But a 
similar condition destroys the effectiveness of cooperative 
benefit companies or associations formed among teachers ; 
too few during the early portion of their teaching career are 
willing to cooperate, not expecting to be ultimate beneficiaries. 
The flat pension system, such as prevails in the army and 
navy, and frequently in cities with reference to police or fire 
service, is objected to by a considerable number of educators 
on the ground of its charitable aspects ; and by many outside 
on the ground that it is socialistic and unwarranted by the 
needs of the profession. 

Tentative Principles. — Two or three considerations should 
be noted. If compulsory insurance in whole or in part — for 
much of German compulsory insurance is only partly met by 
contributions from the beneficiaries — is adopted, it should 
provide that the benefits should be received by as large a 
number as possible. To that end, in case of death, the ac- 
cumulated benefits should pass to dependents and heirs, as in 
ordinary insurance. Again, there should always be provision 
made for a considerable surrender value. Those leaving 
the profession should be able to derive a considerable benefit 
from their participation in the work. Again, after a certain 
limit of age has been reached, resignation ought not to be 
compulsory in order to share in some of the advantages of 
accumulated payments. The observance of these principles 
would, of course, make the insurance more costly, but it would 
make it far more attractive and satisfactory to those who 
desire to combine insurance with some form of investment. 

Again, a complete pension scheme, involving payment in 
full by the state, is probably not, in the case of teachers, in 
the long run, anything of a gratuity. After the permanent 
establishment of such a system, salaries would always tend to 
be adjusted to make allowance for benefits realized from this 



The Teaching Staff 271 

insurance. So, indirectly, teachers would be taxed for the 
payment of the insurance, and such a tax, like most indirect 
taxes, would not be felt, would not irritate, and would not 
provoke efforts at evasion. Since the state and the property 
of the state now pay salaries, in the long run, under a system 
of pensions, the state would not expend any more than it 
would by paying teachers larger salaries with no pensions. 
From the standpoint of the schools of the state the important 
question is whether the form of compensating the teacher 
partly by direct salary and partly by retirement benefits would 
produce more persistent and better service and less discon- 
tent in the profession, and whether it would relieve it of 
many relatively incompetent teachers. On the other hand, 
it is possible that a pensioning system might be of such a 
nature as to hold in the profession those who would and 
should go out of it, the partly competent. 

Finally, a retirement scheme should not involve local expe- 
rience only ; teachers should be encouraged to migrate from 
less to more responsible posts, and even from state to state. 
But such changes should not deprive them of the accumulated 
advantages of funds they may have paid toward a pension. 
If necessary, on changing from one locality to another, they 
should be enabled to withdraw or have transferred a fair 
equity of what they have paid in. 

6. EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND THE UNIONIZATION OF 

TEACHERS 

Associations. — A conspicuous feature of the teaching body 
in the various American states is the development of associ- 
ations. These are varied in character and in functions, but 
fall mainly into two types : {a) General associations embrac- 
ing the superintendents, principals, teachers, and others inter- 
ested in education. Of this type is the National Educational 
Association with over five thousand permanent active mem- 
bers and eight to thirty thousand associate members (accord- 
ing to the place of meeting).^ General associations for all 

1 See National Educational Association, 50th Anniversary Volume. 



2/2 Educational Administration 

kinds of teachers are also formed in most of the states and 
within sections of states, or counties and cities, {b) The 
second type is that which is speciaHzed around some phase of 
teaching. Kindergarten, manual training, science, normal 
training, drawing, grammar-grade principalship, superintend- 
encies, — all of these have given rise to professional organi- 
zations with stated times of meeting and often with yearly 
publications. The educational value of these organizations 
is unquestionable ; both in the general and in the special type, 
enthusiasm is aroused, professional knowledge disseminated, 
and very often steps taken to secure practical legislation to 
further the interests of publicly supported schools. 

Protective Organizations. — Specific action looking to the 
establishment of professional standards and more satisfactory 
conditions, however, is not generally accomplished by these 
associations. They have been able to do little as a rule to 
improve the salary situation, except in very indirect ways. 
Neither have they done much to establish standards which 
should govern teachers in maintaining professional regard for 
each other in applying for positions. They have had little 
influence on the conditions of certification and appointment. 
These needs have given rise to the development of other 
forms of association which seek more directly to attain pro- 
fessionally protective ends. Under various names a type of 
organization has grown up, especially in cities, which has 
addressed itself quite directly to the attainment of certain 
fairly definite purposes of improvement of salary, protection 
of tenure, improvement of administrative control, and other 
conditions which are conceived to benefit the profession. 
This form of organization now and in the future is capable 
of developing very great strength. Like united bodies in 
other spheres of activity, as among professional men, indus- 
trial leaders, laborers, and even in social circles, they are 
able to exercise considerable coercive force over their mem- 
bers. Owing to their well-trained leadership and their striv- 
ing after definite ends, they can develop great power of 
enlisting legislative aid. In one sense, the formation of 
unions among teachers represents a belated attempt, for in 



The Teaching Staff 273 

almost all other callings they exist. In Germany, France, 
and England, teachers' organizations of this sort have attained 
far greater strength than in America. 

Problems of Organization. — It is evident that organizations 
on a union basis are capable of very great good or very great 
harm, according to the conditions under which they work, and 
their dominating ideals. The public school teacher is pecul- 
iar in two respects with reference to the formation of unions : 
{a) he is a member of the civil or state service, and is not at 
liberty, from the standpoint of the welfare of the state, to 
enforce certain demands and to take certain action which 
might be legitimate in the person who is not a public ser- 
vant; {U) secondly, his calling is, or should be, professional 
rather than industrial or commercial in its nature, entailing on 
him social obligations and calls to self-sacrificing service to a 
greater extent than the non-professional vocations. If the 
formation of strong unions should tend to interfere with the 
development of the ideals and the practices which should 
characterize the servant of the state and the member of a 
worthy profession, then their ultimate social effect would be 
very bad. 

On the other hand, it must be recognized that as civiliza- 
tion grows more complex, and as the teaching profession 
involves a greater variety of needs and interests, real progress 
within it must, in the last analysis, come from the teachers 
themselves. Knowing their work in its difficulties and impor- 
tance as no one else can know it, they must formulate those 
demands on society which will make for the efficiency of their 
profession. As isolated workers they cannot do this ; society 
is slow to respond to demands that come from individuals, 
and it will be very slow to learn of itself the true significance 
of the teaching profession. As members of large, loosely 
organized associations bent mainly on fostering professional 
interest, teachers cannot achieve those practical and concrete 
ends which require cooperative action. And it is entirely 
possible that in organizations or associations which are mainly 
officered by those who, in the public school administration, 
stand in positions of authority, they cannot effectively do this. 



2 74 Educational Administration 

In other words, it is probable that, judging from the analogy 
of social movements in other fields, the effective accom- 
plishment of many of the practical ends of educational prog- 
ress can only come from the organization of compact bodies 
of a homogeneous nature, that is, composed of teachers of 
one grade or rank, who will develop from within themselves 
their natural leaders. 

There seems no reason to doubt that this form of organi- 
zation of teachers will take place rapidly in the future. It 
may be expected and hoped for by all who desire to see in 
the teaching force evidences of true social self-activity and 
the development of genuine cooperation. But that the 
development of these organizations will be accompanied 
by many ugly and anti-social manifestations can hardly be 
doubted. They will often be placed on the defensive, and 
there will be danger that under these conditions they will 
forget their social mission and seek too exclusively the 
welfare of their own individual members. Yet, from the 
standpoint of social conditions as they now exist, it is probable 
that the greatest measure of professional advancement will 
come from the extensive development of these compact 
organizations cooperatively seeking ends that make for pro- 
fessional worth. 

REFERENCES 

Bachman, F. P. Certification of Teachers prepared by State Institu- 
tions, Ed. 26 : 40. — Balliet, T. M. City Scliool Supervision, Ed. Rev. 
2 : 482. — Blewitt, B. Tlie Merit System in St. Louis, Proc. N. E. A. 
1905: 241. — Bunker, A. Tlie Boston Teachers' Retirement Fund, Ed. 
20 : 414. — Clark, J. B. Salaries of Teachers, Columbia University Quar- 
terly, 1899 (March). — Cotton, F. A. Teachers' Salaries and how af- 
fected by Minimum Salary Lav^r, Proc. N. E. A. 1906: 132. — Cowdrick, 
E. L. Licensing of Teachers, Ed. 19:299. — Cubberly, E. P. The Cer- 
tification of Teachers, Fifth Year Book of the Nat. Soc. for Sci. Study of 
Education, Chicago, Univ. Press. — Davidson, J. Salaries of Teachers, 
Ed. Rev. 15:155. — Draper, A. S. The Ethics of Getting Teachers 
and Getting Positions, Ed. Rev. 20 : 30. — Dutton, S. T. Expediency 
of Importing Teachers of Apparent Merit, Proc. N. E. A. 1904:322. — 
Dyke, Chas. B. Economic Aspects of Teachers' Salaries, Columbia 
Univ., Contributions. New York. — Fellow, H. C. A Study in School 
Supervision. Topeka. — Felmley, David. The Next Step in the Salary 



The Teaching Staff 275 

Campaign, Proc. N. E. A. 1906 : 183. — Haley, Margaret A. Why Teach- 
ers should Organize, Proc. N. E. A. 1904: 145. — Harris, W. T. The 
Future of Teachers' Salaries, Proc. N. E. A. 1905:67. — Hendrix, J. C. 
The Best Methods of Appointing Public School Teachers, Ed. Rev. 3 : 260. 

— Jackson, Wm. R. The Present Status of the Certification of Teachers 
in the United States, Rep. of U. S. Com. of Education, 1903 : 463. — Keyes, 
C. H. Teachers' Pensions, Proc. N. E. A. 1907:103. — Lane, A. G. 
Taxation and Teachers' Salaries, Proc. N. E. A. 1902 : 323. — McAndrew, 
Wm. Some Suggestions on School Salaries, Ed. Rev. 27 : 375. — Manley, 
E. Compulsory Insurance for Teachers, Ed. Rev. 23:152. — Salmon, 
Lucy M. Civil Service Reform Principles in Education, Ed. Rev. 25 : 348. 

— Sies, R. W. Legal Regulation of Minimum Salaries, Ed. Rev. 35 : 272. 

— Smith, Anna T. Teachers' Salaries and Pensions, Ed. Rev. 2 : 335. — 
Sommer, Frank H. Shall the State regulate Teachers' Salaries? Proc. 
N. E. A. 1905:831. — Prince, J. T. School Administration. Syracuse, 
1906. — Rosling, E. E. Employment and Dismissal of Teachers, Proc. 
N. E. A. 1899: 1118. — Tarbell, H. S. Who shall appoint Teachers, 
and on vi^hose Nomination? Proc. N. E. A. 1893:78. — Venable, B. 
Higher Standards in the Employment of Teachers, Proc. N. E. A. 1904: 
319. — Webster, W. C. Recent Centralizing Tendencies in State Educa- 
tional Administration. New York, 1897. — Wolfe, L. E. Recognition of 
Certificates and Diplomas, Proc. N. E. A. 1904:306. — Wright, B. W. 
The Tenure of Ofifice of Teachers, Proc. N. E. A. 1898 : 996. — Report of 
Commissioner of Education for the United States, Pensions for Teachers, 
1895: 1079; Teachers' Mutual Benefit Associations, 1895: 1343; Salaries 
of School Officials and Teachers in Cities, 1903:2458; Legal Pro- 
visions of the Various States relating to Teachers' Examinations and 
Certificates, 1897-1898: 1659; Teachers' Pensions, 1902: 2369 and 1903: 
2449. — National Education Association, Report of Com. on Interstate 
Recognition of Teachers' Certificates, Proc. 1905:240. — Same, Report 
of Select Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of Teachers, 
Chicago, 1905. 



CHAPTER XVI 

The Improvement of Teachers in Service 

Development. — The improvement of educational art and 
science on the one hand, and on the other the lack of power, 
opportunity, and incentive on the part of the individual 
teacher to study these after he has entered on the practice of 
his profession, produced during the latter half of the nineteenth 
century a variety of forms of organized effort for aiding, 
under direction, that professional growth which was gen- 
erally recognized as being necessary to educational power. 
The large majority of teachers enter upon their work with 
comparatively slight preparation, but usually with enthusi- 
asm for it and a keen desire to improve in its performance. 
Institutes, associations, reading circles, and summer schools 
have developed more extensively among American teachers 
than anywhere else in the world. 

At first largely voluntary and not well organized, the 
tendency in recent years has been to systematize all work 
pertaining to the after training of teachers and to make it 
obligatory upon those who seem to need it. Public support 
in considerable amount has been given to institutes, summer 
schools, and reading circles, and in some states special bodies 
of officials have been created to render the work effective. 
Institutions designed for the preparation of teachers — nor- 
mal schools and universities — have especially encouraged 
the development of special education for teachers in service 
and have often become the organizing forces of such profes- 
sional training. 

The Need of this Training arises from several sources. 
{a) The unpreparedness of the large percentage of teachers 
who enter service after passing simple scholarship examina- 
tions, and who, after beginning work, recognize their own 

276 



The Improvement of Teachers in Service 277 

deficiencies. In the history of institutes it is found that 
many have, both in past and in recent years, given themselves 
largely to purely academic instruction, owing to the con- 
spicuousness of this need among their members. {U) Many 
teachers, well prepared, perhaps, in the academic sense, lack 
interest in and knowledge of the pedagogic arts, — the fields 
of applied psychology and method. Since teaching is yet 
so largely a practical art, its fundamental principles being 
still obscure, it is difficult to develop power in its application 
without experience. But to meetings of various kinds teach- 
ers come fresh from their experience and ready to appreciate 
and measurably grasp information and suggestion regarding 
improved method. In this respect, much of the training of 
teachers can only be accomplished after they have had some 
experience upon which to build and interpret their principles. 
{c) The changing character of the demands, standards, pro- 
cedures in education itself. Especially during the last half- 
century has education in the broad sense of the term made 
very far-reaching advances ; and teachers of professional 
spirit or even merely desirous of meeting with public approval 
have been obliged to devote energy to keeping pace with the 
movements within their profession. 

I. teachers' institutes 

Origins. — Apart from the indirect training accomplished 
through supervision, institutes represent the most widespread 
and persistent attempts to accomplish the improvement of 
teachers already in service. Their beginnings coincide 
roughly with the development of normal schools. According 
to Dexter the first was inaugurated by Henry Barnard in 
Connecticut in 1839. I^ the decade from 1840 to 1850 they 
were established in ten other states, and in most cases public 
provision was made for their support. Frequently these 
earlier institutes held sessions of from two to six weeks, in 
some respects resembling the recently developed summer 
normal schools. Attendance was at first optional, but in the 
majority of the states it is at present compulsory, the teacher 



278 Educational Administration 

being frequently compensated for the time spent in attend- 
ance. The county is commonly the unit of organization, but 
provision is sometimes made to hold separate meetings, per- 
haps at more frequent intervals, for teachers in city schools. 
One meeting a year, lasting for a week, is the prevailing 
practice. 

Control. — Very commonly the county superintendent or- 
ganizes the programme of the institute, but in some states this 
function has been taken over by the State Board or the State 
Superintendent. State control prevails in Alabama, Connect- 
icut, Florida, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, 
Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska (where a dual system holds), 
New Hampshire, North Dakota, West Virginia, and a few 
others. In Georgia the State Commissioner may prepare the 
programme and syllabus of work. In New Jersey the State 
Superintendent secures instructors and prepares the pro- 
gramme for each county. A special institute faculty exists in 
New York, but it is provided by law that cities having expert 
supervision need not require their teachers to attend. In 
Massachusetts the state board takes an active part through 
its agents. Utah has a special board to organize and conduct 
institutes composed of the State Superintendent, the Princi- 
pal of the Normal, and the County Superintendent in each 
county. 

Special Modifications of the institutes are found in some 
states. The summer normal school differs from the institute 
in its greater length of term and the fact that teachers do 
not usually receive their salaries while attending, but fre- 
quently recognition comes in the shape of improved grading 
of certificate. In Louisiana the State Superintendent and 
the President of the Normal School are constituted a State 
Board of Managers to conduct summer normal schools with 
sessions of not less than four weeks. In New Mexico the 
County Superintendent " shall hold annually for not less than 
two weeks a normal institute for teachers and those desiring 
to teach," and it is further provided that instructors must be 
graduates of some institution for the training of teachers. 
In Nebraska the State Superintendent may cooperate with 



The Improvement of Teachers in Service 279 

the county superintendents of two or more counties and hold 
summer normals as a substitute for the regular institute. 
These may have a term of five or six weeks. In Minnesota 
the law allows for a summer training school of from four to 
six weeks. 

In Ohio, where there is no county superintendent, "a 
teachers' institute may be organized in any county by the 
association of not less than thirty teachers in the common 
schools," the law providing for the machinery of this organi- 
zation which has also the handling of an institute fund. In 
city districts in Ohio there is required four days of institute 
each year, but these need not be consecutive, A unique 
provision requires that in case a teacher is not employed at 
the time of an institute, the board next employing her shall 
add to her next month's payment of salary compensation for 
the time she was in attendance. A recent amendment to the 
Massachusetts law provides that " if a county association of 
teachers and others hold an annual meeting of not less than 
one day for the express purpose of promoting the interests 
of public schools, it shall receive fifty dollars from the com- 
monwealth." A similar provision is found in Maine. The 
Superintendent of Michigan is authorized to hold an annual 
state institute, for which he may expend ^400. The state of 
Colorado is divided into thirteen normal institute districts, and 
in each the county superintendents select a committee of 
three to manage meetings, procure instructors, etc. Ex- 
penses are met by a dollar registration fee, and $2 appro- 
priated by the county school commissioners for each person 
in attendance. The State Board of Examiners of Colorado 
issue certificates to those desiring to do institute work. 
Application must state kind of work it is desired to present. 
Certificates will not be issued until appointments have been 
secured. Each application must have three indorsements, 
and must show that the applicant is qualified to be a teacher 
of teachers. 

General Character. — The typical institute organized on a 
county basis, holding annual meetings of a week or less, 
with compulsory attendance of teachers, is not primarily 



28o Educational Administration 

intended for urban teachers. In many states these are ex- 
empted from attendance and special provisions made for them. 
The institute is primarily for non-urban teachers, and there- 
fore affects that part of the teaching force which on the 
whole represents least of professional preparation, of expe- 
rience, and of stability in office. In most states the majority 
of those who attend have had no special training, have had 
short experience, and are probably new to the county. From 
the professional point of view the needs of these young 
teachers are many : they are weak in general education and 
culture ; they are apt to be insufficiently grounded in the 
special subjects they undertake to teach ; and especially do 
they lack the more specifically professional preparation in 
the art of teaching, including professional perspective. The 
instruction in the institute tries to meet these various needs. 
There are frequently general lectures intended to give enthu- 
siasm for teaching and breadth of vision ; special entertain- 
ments in music, drama, and recitation are planned for the 
sake of adding some touches of culture ; special classes are 
organized for the study and review of limited fields of sub- 
ject-matter; and lectures and lessons are given on method, 
applied psychology, and management. 

The Limitations on Effectiveness of the institute are found 
in the fact that its membership is not homogeneous, its 
time is very limited, the members come with no previous 
preparation, and the instructors are frequently chosen for 
some general popularity or excellence which may not nec- 
essarily have reference to the work of a particular body of 
teachers. Owing to their lack of homogeneity it is difficult 
to organize classes for academic study. On account of the 
shortness of time — from three to four days, on the average 
— it is impossible to get serious study organized, or even to 
present much in the way of a continuous programme. Rarely 
have the teachers made previous preparation by reading and 
individual study, so that they are at a point to review in 
institute that which they have learned outside. Finally, the 
membership of the institute is instructed by men and women, 
sometimes having special preparation for this work, but more 



The Improvement of Teachers in Service 281 

frequently having experience as instructors in normal schools 
and universities, and knowing relatively little of the peculiar 
characteristics of the locality or teaching force with which 
they come into contact. 

Positive Results. — The effect of these limitations is that 
the institute quite fairly meets some of the demands made 
upon it, but fails at other points. As a means of bringing 
the teachers of an area together, teachers who are frequently 
isolated and lonely, and of giving them some feeling of esprit 
de corps, it is usually excellent. Very often also it does much to 
give inspiration, to generate enthusiasm, and to produce in 
the teacher new interest in trying to solve the problems 
which confront him. Since most of the teachers reached by 
institutes are not working under trained supervision, the 
meeting with the County Superintendent and with others who 
hold official positions in education, and with more experienced 
teachers, serves to some extent to provide the counsel and 
suggestion which should come through constructive super- 
vision. As a means of bringing the thoughtful and studious 
in contact with the newer thinking in their field it is also 
much of a success; for the instructors are usually abundant 
sources of information about new books, new journals, and 
new ideas that are afloat. Naturally, only a few of the 
teachers in the average institute are responsive to these in- 
fluences ; but these few are the leaven of the profession 
everywhere. 

The Conspicuous Defects of the institute are its failure to 
improve general culture appreciably or to significantly affect 
special scholastic attainments in the fields in which the 
teachers work. To a great extent, also, the average institute 
fails in the matter of method, both general and special, since 
the instructors are not sufficiently close to the problems with 
which the teachers deal, and there is small opportunity for 
demonstration. An example of this is found in the fact that 
instructors are sometimes familiar with method and manage- 
ment only as these apply in carefully graded schools, but 
quite unfamiliar with them as they are involved in rural 
schools of one or two teachers. The consequences are that 



282 Educational Administration 

many of their attempts at inculcating principles quite fail 
because they are unable to take into account the conditions 
under which rural teachers work — and these constitute half 
the teachers of the country. 

Improvement of Institute. — The institute seems to have 
an established place so long as the conditions which now 
prevail in the teaching force — lack of training, lack of ma- 
turity, and extreme mobility on the part of many teachers — 
shall continue. Therefore the problem of improving it is a 
vital one. How can an annual meeting of all teachers in 
a given area, lasting approximately a week, with opportu- 
nities of engaging good educational leaders as instructors, be 
made most effective .'' It must continue its present merits of 
bringing teachers into contact and giving them inspiration. 
But it must improve educational attainments, both general 
and special, and it must make direct and practical contribu- 
tions to the specifically professional powers of the teachers. 
In order to effect these ends the first requirement is that the 
annual institute should represent the climax of a year of 
study on the part of the teacher. We assume that the true 
teacher must be also a learner. A share, even if a modest 
one, of the teacher's time should be given to study along at 
least the following lines : (<^) he should be studying in some 
of the fields that minister to general knowledge and culture ; 
(^) he should be learning more deeply the subjects he has 
to teach ; and {c) he should be studying those things in 
applied psychology, physiology, educational history, soci- 
ology, and method which will improve his command of the 
teaching art. More and more of this sort of study should be 
regarded as compulsory, if its ends can be achieved in no 
other way. The institute, then, should involve, among other 
things, a testing of the work done during the year and its 
reenforcement at various points. It should visit upon the 
teacher a specific demand for results of the year's study, 
and should reward him with clear indications of his accom- 
plishments. The genuine problems that have been met by 
the teacher should be brought to the front and cleared up. 
If possible, methods of teaching should be exemplified, or 



The ImproveTneiit of Teachers in Service 283 

at least many teachers should report results of experimental 
work. 

Organization of Institute Work. — To attain these standards, 
there will be needed more and more continuity of manage- 
ment and work. Whether this can be best accomplished 
within the county unit or by a state board, is still an open 
question. Expert direction, however, is very necessary, as 
also plans reaching several years ahead. These must be 
adjusted so as to be progressive for some teachers, but also 
so as to make provision for new entrants to the profession. 
The work of the institute week must be so planned as to 
utilize to the full experiences obtained in actual practice. 
The above demands involve considerable administrative diffi- 
culties, but it must be noted that in many places they have 
already been approximately overcome. Where local reading 
circles are combined with the institutes so that the results of 
a year's reading are focussed at the meeting, and where the 
books read are given some broader interpretations by master 
minds, valuable professional results have already been largely 
achieved. Where voluntary agencies or an unusually pro- 
gressive county superintendent has enlisted most of the 
teachers in systematic study, the progress made in a year 
has been considerable, and the institute meeting becomes, 
then, a means of rounding up and completing the studies of 
the year. Much depends, of course, on the books, syllabi, 
and other study aids provided for the teacher ; and an essen- 
tial feature of the success of this kind of organized profes- 
sional advancement is that it should be planned far ahead. 
The succeeding year's work should be mapped out in con- 
siderable detail and the widest possible interest aroused in it. 
The feasibility of personal study of this sort has been abun- 
dantly demonstrated in the case of correspondence courses, 
whether coming from special schools or from universities. 
In fact, it may be said that ultimately it must be recognized 
that the teacher who, under moderate guidance, is incapable 
of carrying on systematic study of the quality here outlined 
will be regarded as unfit to remain permanently in the 
profession. 



284 Educational Administration 

Expert Conductors. — Other factors are doubtless involved 
in the problem of rendering institutes more effective. Each 
state will have to seek to develop a body of instructors 
especially for this work. At present there is usually insuffi- 
cient organization. A system of paid institute instructors 
may prove most effective ; but these positions might easily 
degenerate into a number of well-paid, fairly comfortable 
"jobs." It is probably better that, out of universities and 
normal schools, where the capacity of the incumbents is put 
constantly to the test, individuals should be selected and 
appointed for a period of some years to organize and con- 
duct this work. With their scholarship and previous prepa- 
ration, they could soon, if acting under appointment for a 
term, make local adjustments. The services of men of this 
type could be best enlisted through some form of state 
organization. Certainly, once appointed, it would be nec- 
essary for them to meet frequently with superintendents 
and each other in order to develop the fullest preparation 
for their work. To this end periodical conferences should 
be held. The content and methods for institute work need 
careful study, and contact should be maintained with prac- 
tical conditions.^ 

^ In Wisconsin the Board of Regents of the normal schools has a committee on 
institutes, who must approve institute conductors. A state fund of I9000 is given 
by the state for support, and is distributed among the counties in proportion to 
the number of teachers. For 1903 the state expended in all ^28,000 on institute 
work. 

There is held annually a convention of institute conductors in which the course 
of study for institutes is discussed. " The programmes show that only such work 
as is especially adapted to rural schools is attempted." Of 81 institutes held in 
1902-1903, 3 were for twenty days, 25 for fifteen days, 32 for ten days, 9 for five 
days, 3 for three days, 4 for two days, and 5 for one day. In the year following 
the above the very long institutes had diminished, and the shorter ones increased, 
in number. 

Institute work is regularly inspected by the State Superintendent or some one 
from his office. The Superintendent a few years ago urged all conductors to 
visit a certain number of rural schools in order to familiarize themselves with the 
conditions there prevailing, but little response was made to the request. Later 
he provided blanks in which they were to report the result of their visitations, 
and met with enthusiastic response. " Many of the leading conductors visited 
from three to ten rural schools during the year and made reports of their visita- 
tions to the State Superintendent." 



The Improvement of Teachers in Service 285 

Summer Normals. — Under some circumstances the summer 
normal may replace the institute, especially for young teachers 
who have entered service with very imperfect training and 
who, in country districts, teach but six or seven months in 
the year. The summer normal will always be a free school 
under state support, but it is doubtful if any arrangement 
can be made for direct compensation of teachers taking the 
work, as in the case of the annual institutes. Rather, the 
teacher's compensation can be made to come in the form of 
an increased salary when she obtains employment. Many 
boards of education, even now, advance the salaries of those 
teachers who take one or more summer terms at normal 
schools or universities. In the future evolution of the in- 
stitute, allowance will doubtless have to be made for substitu- 
tion of attendance at the summer normal in place of regular 
institute attendance. But if this release is granted, it can be 
argued that it should also be granted to teachers with regular 
professional training. It is conceivable that in some states 
the law requiring attendance of all teachers at institute is too 
rigid. For example, it is not usually possible to provide a 
special programme for secondary school-teachers, yet they are 
required to attend. In some counties a well-equipped corps 
of teachers from a city system are obliged to attend along 
with the mass of inferiorly trained ones. The result is mal- 
adjustment and a spirit of objection on the part of many who 
feel that the work given does not meet their requirements. 

Subdivision of Institute. — In solving the problems of the 
institutes, further adjustments must be made within their 
organization. Much has been done in recent years with 
departmental work, where teachers are divided into sections, 
each having some special need or interest, and the programme 
adjusted accordingly. One advantage of small sections is 
that self-activity of the teachers (in shape of discussion, etc.) 
is promoted thereby, and this feature might be expected to 
increase in importance with the development of reading 
circles on the part of the teachers. The merging of several 
counties together in holding institutes and sometimes their 
combination with state or divisional association meetings 



286 Educational Administration 

contributes greatly to the possibilities of sectional work. 
Many recent laws encourage the enlargement of the institute 
area, and with increased facilities for transportation this 
becomes possible. But if the continuity of the work of the 
institute is desired and attempts are made to combine with it 
a summing up of the year's study, then the enlargement of 
the unit clearly indicates the need of state oversight and 
control of programme, 

2. READING CIRCLES 

Teachers have generally taken an active part in voluntary 
movements for culture. The membership of Chautauqua 
and other associations which combine individual with co- 
operative study has been largely composed of teachers. In 
local communities and especially under active principals and 
superintendents small groups are organized, books selected, 
and provisions made for regular meetings at which the work 
read may be discussed. It has already been noted that not 
infrequently in connection with institutes, county reading 
circles are formed which may pursue systematic study year 
after year. 

Ohio Reading Circle. — The most extensive reading circle 
work is found in the state organizations of Indiana and 
Ohio. The Ohio Teachers' Reading Circle was organized 
in 1883 and is governed by a Board of Control of eight, two 
of whom are elected annually by the State Teachers' Asso- 
ciation. A trifling fee is charged, and members pledge them- 
selves to do the prescribed reading. For a year's study a 
certificate is given, and for four years' systematic work a 
diploma, if the work is approved by the Board of Control. 
A review of the lists of reading represented in the report of 
the State Superintendent shows that in pedagogy recent con- 
tributions are studied, while also courses in Hterature and 
history are regularly pursued. Over a third of all teachers 
in the state are members of the circle. 

The Indiana Reading Circle started at the same time as the 
Ohio. Its management within counties is usually in the 



The Improvement of Teachers in Service 287 

hands of the County Superintendent, but the state directors 
may appoint some other county manager, if it seems desirable. 
The State Board prescribes "two or more lines" of reading, 
but the county division can make special arrangements as to 
time and extent of reading to be taken. Examinations are 
given, and the results of these are accepted in some subjects 
by both the County Superintendents and the State Board in 
issuing certificates. Out of something over 16,000 teachers 
in the schools of Indiana in 1902- 1903, 13,274 v^ere members 
of the State Reading Circle. Branches were found in every 
county in the state. 

Other states have organizations for the control and devel- 
opment of reading circles, among them being Colorado, 
Virginia, Maryland, and California. In Colorado the State 
Reading Circle derives its authority from the educational 
council. The council elects a supervisor for three years, 
who, with the State Superintendent, selects three others and 
all these make the Reading Circle Board. This board selects 
books, outlines topics, distributes books, and generally plans 
programmes. To encourage the work, the examination ques- 
tions provided by the state for certain subjects are taken 
from books prescribed for the reading circle. In Virginia 
the professional course is of four years, and is designed as 
a preparation for certificate examination. The circle is 
under charge of the Board of Examiners. There is another 
circle for certificated teachers. Completion of courses is 
recognized for renewal or prolongation of certificate. In 
all these states the relative scope of the work is much less 
than in Ohio and Indiana. 

The Success of the Reading Circle Work is largely dependent 
upon the efforts of a few leaders. Given enthusiastic di- 
rectorship and teachers located so as to be able to meet 
easily, a considerable amount of work can be accomplished 
in the course of a year. The superintendent or school 
principal is naturally an organizing force, but in practice 
he frequently remains in the background, providing for 
actual leadership from the teachers themselves. Where a 
county or state board exists, it is sometimes found expedient 



288 Educatiofial Adininistration 

to provide a syllabus of directions, questions, problems for 
discussion, and an analysis of the contents of the books 
read. In this way material is supplied which serves as a 
basis for reports and discussions at meetings, since fre- 
quently the book read, owing to the inexperience of the 
members of the circle, may not provide sufficient points of 
attack for discussion. 

Progressive Courses. — It is uncommon to find a course 
that can be strictly described as progressive, owing to the 
shifting membership of the circles. But since new books 
are taken up year after year, and only occasionally is return 
made for successive years to some classic, the course may 
become, in a sense, progressive for all its members, with 
the added feature that new-comers may take it up at any 
point. Usually two or more lines are represented, of which 
pedagogy and education is the strongest, and literature of 
next importance. History, philosophy, sociology, natural 
science, and current literature, as found in magazines, are 
other lines of study that are represented in various circles. 
A weekly meeting is most common, but biweekly or monthly 
meetings are also found, especially where teachers are much 
scattered. Evening meetings give the circle less appearance 
of formality, but may be inconvenient for scattered teachers. 
Small circles and branches frequently meet after school hours 
during the week, but such meetings are often found to be hard 
to manage, the teachers being tired. Saturday meetings are 
in vogue in some sections, and these are apt to assume the 
character of small institutes with set programme and formal 
features. A not infrequent attempt at such meetings is to 
have some one from outside the circle give a talk, which is 
interesting, but frequently destroys the self-active features of 
the true reading circle. 

Aims and Materials. — Organized professional reading has 
been, so far, of sporadic development and has not become to 
any extent a source of expense to the state, as have institutes. 
It was shown in a former section that the future development 
of the institute is undoubtedly in the direction of connecting 
with existing reading circles, or evolving within itself the 



The Improvement of Teachers in Service 289 

means of cooperative reading and study. Pending this ad- 
justment, it is undoubtedly to the interest of education that 
reading clubs should be widely fostered. Their effect for 
many teachers is good, and they can hardly ever be harm- 
ful in any way. Several problems still wait solution in connec- 
tion with these circles : — 

a. Texts. — The first is that of suitable material. Every 
teacher knows the importance to children who study by them- 
selves of text-books adapted to their needs. A similar con- 
dition holds in reading circles. There is a scarcity in many 
subjects of books which are constructed so as to hold the 
attention of students and form a suitable basis of study. In 
pedagogy, especially, is this true, where much of the litera- 
ture is not well organized or founded on practical experience. 
The study of the general subjects of a professional nature — 
such as history of education, psychology, and the philosophy 
of education — frequently appeals only to the more inquiring 
and speculative of teachers. But many others are seeking 
studies which illumine their own experience and give them 
consciousness of greater power. Educational books supplying 
this need are few. It is highly probable that with the de- 
velopment of reading circles among teachers, and the crea- 
tion of a demand for a definite type of professional literature, 
a supply will be forthcoming. It is well known that the 
Chautauqua society markedly affected the character of many 
books produced for general reading. In the meantime, 
where a sufficient extent of organization prevails to make it 
feasible, the issuance of a syllabus setting forth questions 
and problems, and perhaps making some added interpretation 
of the book used, can be carried on with profit. For this pur- 
pose, it is desirable to have the syllabus made by some in- 
dividual or committee that is closely in touch with the teachers 
who have to use the book. It is a fact that many teachers 
have not learned well the art of -profitable study by them- 
selves, and it is also a fact that instructors in normals, and 
especially in universities, have often not learned the art of 
preparing a guide or syllabus which is of genuine service to 
the teacher. 



290 Educatio7ial Administration 

b. Variability. — Not only does the capacity of teachers 
vary, but their interests are also quite different, according to 
their age, experience, sex, and degree of intellectual develop- 
ment. No generally planned reading circle work can be 
successful which fails to take account, as far as practicable, of 
these factors of difference. Hence state or large organiza- 
tions must provide flexible programmes, with considerable lati- 
tude for choice left to local laodies. Given opportunity for 
choice, the local group will, of course, decide somewhat on a 
majority basis what course of work to follow. A device that 
has been tried with success is to have some single popular 
book determine the ,line of study, but to have this supple- 
mented by two or more others in the same field, which specially 
qualified members may take up instead of the prescribed 
book. This will introduce variety and permit the more ad- 
vanced members opportunity for studies that do not involve 
repetition. 

c. Organization. — In regard to size of club and time of 
meeting, often harm is done by too great attempt to find a 
simple basis. It is not improbable that under most circum- 
stances the formation of a fairly large club to meet once a 
month or less often, with branches meeting at more frequent 
intervals, will give the greatest measure of success. In this 
way a large measure of individual work of a self-active nature 
could be accomplished in the branch clubs, while the inspira- 
tion that comes from the occasional large meetings under 
competent leadership might be accomplished in the centralized 
meetings. It requires a considerable body of teachers to de- 
velop a competent and inspiring leader. In the larger group 
the full effect of the leader's personality could be felt. 

3. PROMOTION ON THE BASIS OF MERIT 

Motives for Self-improvement. — The professional improve- 
ment of teachers will be, to some extent, accomplished by the 
agencies just described, even though no external motive for 
self-improvement exist. But owing to the limitations of so 
many who take up teaching and their want of serious inten- 



Tlie I^nprovement of Teachers in Service 291 

tions in the profession, it becomes highly desirable to develop 
to the utmost every motive for professional growth. Forces 
already at work tend, undoubtedly, to put a premium on the 
trained as against the untrained teacher on entering the pro- 
fession. But it is still characteristic of too many teachers to 
think that, once secure in an attractive position, the need for 
further study and improvement has passed away. Teachers 
seldom believe that boards are able to discern the effects 
of professional study, and they depend upon holding their 
positions by resort to other means. After teachers have 
obtained the skill and confidence in their work which come 
with experience, even superintendents are not always ready 
to demand further systematic study. Where institutes are 
provided and teachers' reading circles developed, many 
teachers, unconvinced of their practical utility, remain 
passive. 

Salary Advances as Incentive. — In very recent years many 
superintendents have seriously considered the possibilities of 
utilizing the advancing scale of pay for the teacher as a 
means of providing greater incentive to self-improvement. 
In effect, of course, where employment rests on a private 
rather than on a public basis, merit tends to be always recog- 
nized and compensation advanced proportionately. But in 
public employment this is not so practicable. There are two 
ways in which teachers are now advanced on the basis of 
merit, assuming that the conditions of selection are wisely 
administered. Teachers pass from communities where com- 
pensation and opportunities are poor to places where these 
are better; and, within limits, they are promoted to positions 
of higher rank, as supervisors, principals, etc. But the 
former possibility does not affect the members of the ordinary 
city force who have settled in a given place. The latter 
affects a comparatively small number, and only those of 
easily recognizable qualities of personality, so that, for a large 
majority of city teachers, it does not act at all as an incen- 
tive. 

Experience as Basis of Advancing Salaries. — The practice 
has grown up, especially under the conditions of skilled 



k 



292 Educational Administration 

administration, of having a schedule of advancing salaries 
based on length of experience. This practice is universal in 
European schools and colleges, but finds an analogue no- 
where except in pubHc service. The justification for it lies 
in the fact that, up to a very considerable age, teachers, on 
the whole, do improve with maturity and experience. To 
this, of course, there are many exceptions, for any body of 
teachers may grow less interested and less able with length 
of experience, and among most of them there comes an age 
Hmit when further improvement is uncommon. Under these 
conditions an advancing scale of compensation must be looked 
upon as a sort of pension. 

Merit Basis. — From the standpoint of educational econ- 
omy, therefore, the real problem is to provide an advancing 
scale of salaries, based, not simply or merely on duration of 
experience, but on actual teaching merit. Apart from previ- 
ous preparation, the simplest and crudest test of improved 
ability is advanced experience. But if finer and more exact 
tests could be devised, so that of teachers of an equal amount 
of experience it would be possible to select those of the 
greater educational ability, in the large sense of that term, 
then it would be possible to prepare a scheme of advancing 
compensation based on real worth to the educational system. 
If, then, it could be made apparent that improved teaching 
capacity depended, to a certain extent, upon personal study 
and systematic preparation, it would be possible to utilize the 
advancing scale of salaries as an incentive for this study. 

Difficulties of Ascertaining Merit. — The obvious difficulty 
of putting into practice a scheme that would certainly be 
approved by all who took the wider view of educational 
economy, lies in the fact that it is difficult to provide the ma- 
chinery for ascertaining this improvement in ability. Teach- 
ing power involves factors that may, within certain crude 
limits, be tested by examination, as in the case of examination 
for certification. But it also involves other factors which are 
personal, intangible, and largely unmeasurable by ordinary 
standards. If teachers are to be advanced in compensation 
on some other basis than the easily measured one of length 



I 



The Improvement of Teachers in Service 293 

of experience, what shall it be ? Written examinations based 
on study are crude and, like the age test, will utterly fail in 
the case of some very able teachers. 

Supervisory Tests. — Since in cities the work of teachers 
is supervised by trained and experienced principals and 
superintendents, their judgment as to the promotion of a 
teacher should apparently suffice. But this assumes some 
conditions which are not usually found. The supervision of 
the Superintendent is not sufficiently close, often, to make him 
feel competent to pass upon so important and delicate a mat- 
ter as the advancement, or refusal of advancement, in the 
matter of the salary of the teacher. But supervision of 
instruction can never be primarily the main function of the 
Superintendent; that must rest largely with the principal, 
the Superintendent, or his deputies acting as inspectors. 
Trained principals, supervising the work of from fifteen to 
twenty-five teachers, should be able to know their work so 
well that the question of passing on its quality, subject to the 
corroboration of the Superintendent, should not, ultimately, 
be a difficult matter. 

Composite Tests. — The solution of the problem is not a 
simple one, but it is not without solution, and in the interests 
of a system of education reaching its maximum efficiency, it 
is highly desirable that some system of merit promotion be 
found. Undoubtedly, this will have to be based on com- 
posite tests, into which examinations of studies, special papers 
written on educational themes, and teaching ability as meas- 
ured by supervisors will all enter. In the interests of econ- 
omy, and to prevent abuses, it is highly probable that the 
system must be competitive — that is, in each higher class 
the number of places must be limited, so that each class may 
be kept of definite number. For example, if teachers of a 
given kind, as primary, were divided into six salary classes, 
A being the first and lowest, and F the highest, and it were 
determined that the three upper classes could never contain 
each more than 15 per cent of the teachers, classes B and 
C 20 per cent each, and 15 per cent in the probationary 
class, then each year would probably see competition to enter 



294 Educational Administration 

the higher class. To some extent, a time requirement might 
be imposed, as, for example, that a teacher must remain at 
least two years in any class before attempting to enter a 
higher class. Subject to these restrictions, then, promotion 
would be for those standing highest in their professional 
studies, combined with their actual teaching efficiency. It 
would seem also necessary to take physical strength and 
health into account, in measuring the deserts of the teacher 
for promotion, if for no other purpose than to protect some 
exceptionally ambitious teachers from overwork. But the 
reasonableness of this requirement, in the long run, is closely 
allied with educational efficiency, since, generally speaking, 
only teachers who know how to preserve health, and who are 
willing to do so, can do best work in teaching. 

4. THE SABBATICAL TERM AND ITS USES 

In the higher institutions of learning the custom has grown 
up of allowing instructors leaves of absence at stated inter- 
vals, often one year in seven, for the purpose of study, travel, 
and investigation. This is done without prejudice to the 
tenure of office of the instructor, and usually on half salary. 
A few normal schools are now doing the same thing, and 
even high schools, in some cases, are attempting to make pro- 
vision for a year or half year of study on the part of their 
teachers. In the higher institutions the ultimate educational 
value of the sabbatical leave of absence is unquestioned, and 
it is regarded as a most profitable form of investment. 

Leave of Absence. — In the elementary and high schools, 
within recent years, some progress has been made in allowing 
teachers a leave of absence for study or travel or rest, but 
this has been arranged usually as an individual matter, and 
in practically no case has it been possible to provide for 
any compensation during this period of absence. It would be 
a marked educational advance if a system that provides for 
prolonged tenure of office for teachers, would allow a certain 
percentage of its teachers to be regularly absent, even 
without pay. Under present conditions, many teachers are 



The Improvement of Teachers in Service 295 

willing to spend a year in travel at their own expense, if 
they can be guaranteed their former places on their return. 
The value to the schools of this leave of absence can 
hardly be questioned, since it would provide one of the 
most effective means of professional growth that can be 
secured. From the standpoint of ultimate economy and 
effectiveness, the school system could well afford to allow 
all of its regular teachers such leave once in four or five 
years for half a year and once in eight or ten for a 
full year, at half pay. But where this is still impracticable, 
it is highly desirable that teachers be permitted, systematically, 
to take this leave of absence, and even be encouraged to do 
so, at their own expense, but with a guarantee that their 
positions will await them on their return. In the case of 
women teachers who are in danger of physical breakdown, 
this is a matter of special importance. 

5. SCHOOL VISITING 

In the absence of the possibilities of the Sabbatical term, 
many city systems now make provision for systematic visiting 
on the part of the teachers. It can easily be understood, 
of course, that teachers in city systems especially do not 
find, during vacation, opportunities to visit other schools 
which are in session. Vacations fall too nearly together for 
this purpose. But if, during the school year, teachers can 
be released, even for one or two days, to visit the classes 
of other teachers who are reputed to be doing successfully 
the same kind of work as the teacher visiting, the profit 
is large and immediate. By means of substitute teachers, 
each teacher is allowed systematically time off to visit such 
schools as she finds desirable. Sometimes a report of this 
visiting is required at teachers' meetings. In at least one 
city this visiting is accomplished by closing the schools 
for the last three days of a given week, all the teachers 
utilizing the time to visit schools in neighboring cities. To 
this is added the rule that Saturday must be employed for 
visiting industrial plants or educational institutions, including 



296 Educational Administration 

reform schools. In one state, where it is not practicable 
to provide a suitable programme for high school teachers 
at the regular county institute, provision is made to have 
the small number of secondary teachers visit high schools 
in neighboring counties. 

The effectiveness of this for the teacher is found in the 
fact that the visiting teacher is so well prepared to profit 
by what she sees. Coming from her own field of experience, 
seeing teaching done in the same subjects and grades as 
she herself follows, she will be able to profit from devices 
and minute procedures employed by the teachers visited. 
The effectiveness of the visiting is much increased, naturally, 
by a systematic account prepared for teachers' meeting or 
for a study to be presented in the scheme for promotional 
testing. 

6. CONSERVING THE PHYSICAL WELL-BEING OF TEACHERS 

The means hitherto discussed pertain mainly to those 
features of the teachers' growth which are intellectual and 
moral in their nature. But the conservation of physical 
strength is of no less importance. It is the testimony of 
all who have investigated the subject, that teaching, when 
carried on with interest and effort, is peculiarly trying to 
the physical organism, and possibly more so to women 
than to men. In proportion as men and women of active, 
energetic, and enthusiastic temperament enter teaching, and 
in proportion as the exactions of the work increase, will 
the question of physical welfare assume greater importance. 
It is undoubtedly a fact that at present far too many teachers 
carry on their work from year to year in a state of physical 
illness which seriously impairs their effectiveness. Among 
the factors to be considered as affecting improvement in 
this field are : — 

a. Medical Inspection. — The development of adequate med- 
ical inspection in the schools, which shall reach teachers as 
well as pupils is possible. A full consideration of the physi- 
cal well-being of children will take into account children under 



The hnproveTuent of Teachers hi Service 297 

teachers who are not themselves well enough to give that 
interest and activity which is desirable. Through the system 
of medical inspection, higher ideals of health must be made 
general. 

b. School Programme. — In planning school work and the 
school programme, little study has thus far been given to the 
effect of the same on the health of the teachers. Large 
classes and many hours of teaching are perhaps inevitable 
conditions. But departmental work might greatly relieve 
the burden of preparation of teachers in the upper grades. 
Forms of day schedules vary much in their tax on the vital 
energy of both teacher and pupil. Little attention of a 
scientific order has yet been given to the matter of arranging 
for a minimum of outside work for the teachers which is 
consonant with the best work of the school, in the matter of 
making reports, correcting papers, preparing lessons, etc. 
This phase of school economy has not yet received sufficient 
attention. (See sections on Programme, Departmental Teach- 
ing, etc.) 

c. Secure Tenure. — Any scheme of tenure which gives 
the teacher a feeling of deserved security ; a retiring system 
which diminishes worry about future conditions ; a system of 
possible leave of absence for a term or year when change is 
urgently needed ; the development of systematic institute 
instruction and other agencies in the preparation of the 
teacher which will facilitate growth with a minimum of 
waste, — all these are agencies that must ultimately make for 
physical well-being. The same might also be said of a sys- 
tem of supervision which would enlist the teacher's coopera- 
tion to the fullest and make her relatively unconscious of the 
purely critical attitude. 

d. Recognition of Natural Limitations. — In a system de- 
pending, to some extent, on competition as a stimulus, it is 
highly desirable that teachers should be made to realize their 
physical and intellectual limitations as early as possible, to 
the end that they shall not strive unduly. It must, of course, 
be true that many teachers will only have fair capacities for 
learning, that they will be incapable of profiting from studies 



298 Educational Administration 

as much as others, and that in their schoolroom practice 
they will manifest deficiencies which no amount of self- 
endeavor can remove. Medical and educational supervision 
should cooperate in making the teacher aware of her natural 
limitations, to the end that undue straining and worry — a 
frequent vice with teachers — may be avoided. 

e. The Physical Surroundings of the teachers may within 
limits be adjusted to improve health conditions. A special 
room for women teachers is not always found in school build- 
ings, where teachers may be at their ease away from the 
classroom during intermissions and rest periods. 

/. Teachers' Clubs. — In cities many teachers live away 
from home and board under conditions not conducive to best 
health. It is not improbable that the formation of teachers' 
clubs on a cooperative basis might result in the provision of 
conditions which would tend to relieve strain and make the 
surroundings more hygienic. 

g. Vacations. — Sufficient study has not yet been given to 
the use of vacations and summer school study. It is thought 
by some that the summer vacation should not be spent in 
study, but others believe that the complete change of attitude 
from the expressive to the receptive involved in doing sys- 
tematic study during the summer, or part of it, may in itself 
be decidedly restful. The probabilities are that, to a consid- 
erable extent, the matter is individual. Some teachers, tired 
with the constant outgiving of the school year, may find a 
time of study and receptivity the best preparation for another 
year's work ; while others, who have lowered their energies 
too much for study, can profit most from a time of complete 
relaxation. 

REFERENCES 

Adams, H. B. Summer Schools and University Extension (with bib- 
liography), in Butler's Education in the United States. Albany, 1900. 
— Arnold, Sarah L. The Duties and Privileges of a Supervisor, Proc. 
N. E. A. 1898 : 228. — Barnes, E. Improvement of Teachers by Teachers' 
Classes, Proc. N. E. A. 1895:173. — Carr, J. W. Providing Better 
Teachers, Proc. N. E. A. 1905 : 180. — Cook, J. W. Hov/ can the Su- 
perintendent improve the Efficiency of the Teachers under his Charge ? 



The Improvement of Teachers hi Service 299 

Proc. N. E. A. 1900 : 276. — Cooley, E. G. The Basis of Grading Teachers' 
Salaries, Proc. N. E. A. 1907:94. — Crane, L. R. Principal's Duty to 
his Poorly Trained Teachers, Ed. 25 1412. — Dewey, J. Academic Free- 
dom, Ed. Rev. 23: I. — Dewey, J. Democracy and Education, El. Sch. 
Teacher, 4: 193. — Edson, A. W. Professional Improvement, Ed. 20: 
129. — Fitzpatrick, F. A. How to improve the Work of Inefficient 
Teachers, Proc. N. E. A. 1893 : 71. — Gilbert, C. B. The Freedom of the 
Teacher, Proc. N. E. A. 1903 : 164. — Gordy, W. F. Growth of Teachers, 
how Continued, Proc. N. E. A. 1907:256. — Greenwood, J. M. An Ex- 
perience in Helping Teachers Professionally, Ed. Rev. 30 : 464. — Green- 
wood, J. M. Efficient School Supervision, Proc. N. E. A. 1888:519. — 
Greenwood, J. M. How to judge a School, Ed. Rev. 17:334. — Green- 
wood, J. M. The Professional Culture of Teachers, Ed. 26 : 279 (and in Proc. 
N. E. A. 1905 : 325). — Halsey, R. F. University Extension for Teachers 
in Service, Proc. N. E. A. 1904:294. — Harris, Ada V. S. Influence 
of the Supervisor, Proc. N. E. A. 1906:117. — Harris, W. T. How to 
make Good Teachers out of Poor Ones, Proc. N. E. A. 1899:310. — 
Hinsdale, B. A. The Training of Teachers, in Butler's Education in 
the United States. Albany, 1900. — Lowry, C. D. Professional Training 
and Improvement of Teachers. In Seventh Year Book of the Nat. Soc. for 
the Scientific Study of Education (Chicago) . — Mark, H. T. Individuality 
and the Moral Aim in American Education. London, 1901. — Martin, G.H. 
How can a Teacher master his Business ? Ed. 18 : 131. — Olin, A. S. The 
Improvement of Teachers by Institutes, Proc. N. E. A. 1895 : 165. — Pickard, 
J. L. School Supervision. New York, 1890. — Seaver, E. P. Teachers 
and their Standing, Ed. Rev. 16: 295. — Small, W. H. Should Teachers 
Present Evidences of Increasing Scholarship ? Proc. N. E. A. 1904 : 326. 
— Smart, J. H. Teachers' Institutes. In U. S. Bur. of Ed., Circ. of Inf., 
1885: no. 2. — Thompson, A. I. The Superintendent from the Primary 
Teacher's Point of View, Forum 31:47. — Vance, W. M. Best Means 
and Methods of Improving Teachers, Proc. N. E. A. 1906: 126. — Van 
Sickle, J. H. What shall be the Basis of Promotion and Advance in 
Teachers' Salaries? Proc. N. E. A. 1906: 177. — -Van Sickle, J. H. Out- 
lines of Methods of Appointing and Advancing Teachers, Proc. N. E. A. 
1905: 244. — Willoughby, W. W. History of Summer Schools in the 
United States, Rep. of Com. of Ed. 1891-1892 : 893 ; 1895 : 1483. (Check 
List of American Summer Schools ; and Bibliography.) 



CHAPTER XVII 

The Supervision of Kindergartens and Elementary 

Schools 

The supervision of instruction is, of course, the most essen- 
tial part of the work of a school superintendent. However 
complex and pressing are the claims of other departments of 
his office, his highest value is found in the standards he sets 
for teaching and the methods he applies in reaching those 
standards. If his field is so large that he must delegate the 
supervision, he must, nevertheless, think about it and devise 
those methods which will tend to secure coherence and effec- 
tiveness in the supervision of others. 

It has long been understood that the early years of a child's 
life are most important on account of the elasticity of his 
nature and the strength of the impressions which he receives. 
So, when the child enters school it is of importance that 
he find an atmosphere which is at once interesting and 
attractive, and at the same time productive of the growth of 
his whole nature. The kindergarten has made a distinct 
contribution to this field of education, and while it is not 
actually operative in all school systems, yet its spirit and aim 
are widely felt, and have exerted a considerable influence in 
vitalizing and improving primary education. 

Supervision begins its work in securing for the first one or 
two years of the child's life the best that the kindergarten 
and the primary school have developed. It must discrimi- 
nate between what is good and what is bad in both, and 
emphasize and encourage every desirable element. Avoid- 
ing a conservatism which clings to methods simply because 
they are FroebeHan and that liberalism which overlooks 
the most fundamental kindergarten principles and permits 

300 



Eletnentary School Supervision 301 

teachers and pupils to do anything they please, it should 
seek to discover an orderly line of progress through the 
first year, the second year, and the third year of the 
child's school life. The gifts and stories are made both 
symbolic and practical, and extend through the whole period. 
The industries are organized so that the child from the 
kindergarten continues, for a short time at least, substan- 
tially the same kind of hand-work in the primary school to 
which he has been accustomed. Language, which in a good 
kindergarten receives much attention, is continued in the 
school in such a progressive and constructive way that there 
is no appreciable lack in continuity. The same rule of se- 
quence and progress should apply to number, games, songs, 
stories, and morning talks. 

The Segregation of Kindergartners. — The first difficulty 
that arises is the tendency of kindergartners to constitute a 
cult by themselves, and to discuss and plan as though the 
kindergarten were not a part of a whole. The first necessity, 
then, is to bring kindergartners and primary teachers to- 
gether, and have them consider in detail the aims to be sought 
and the several activities to be employed in both fields for the 
accomplishment of those aims. This means in every school 
system much, patient study and long-continued effort. The 
superintendent or supervisor should never confess to weari- 
ness in this work, because it lies at the very foundation of the 
educational scheme and deserves the best wisdom and the 
most painstaking care. If, instead of the great meetings of 
kindergartners which are held annually, there could be half 
a dozen meetings held at different points in which kinder- 
gartners and primary teachers should think and work to- 
gether, more rapid progress could be made in coordinating 
these two groups of workers and in removing the lack of 
unity which has too often prevailed. 

Importance of Harmonizing Different Views. — It is impor- 
tant to note here that the most broad-minded and studious 
kindergartners are recognizing in an appreciative way the 
somewhat rival claims of the conservative kindergartners on 
the one hand and the more liberal kindergartners and pri- 



302 Educational Administration 

mary teachers on the other. Miss Lucy Wheelock, writing 
in the Elementary School Teacher of October, 1907, on the 
theory of interest, states the case in such a way that it would 
seem not to be impossible to secure harmony of sentiment 
and action, for it is certainly of great moment that the educa- 
tion of children should combine both points of view. 

" One school of kindergartners asserts that the mind is self-environing, 
that through imagination it may lay hold upon a larger world than that 
which the eyes behold. They would transcend the limits of the actual and 
often sordid environment. Those holding this faith would not give much 
time to the illustration of phases of experience, which are temporary and 
limited ; but to those larger aspects which connect present and future by 
bonds of true and enduring worth. They demand continuity and logical 
sequence in the programme ; stories modelled after certain universal types, 
plays which reveal the great institutional life of man in dramatic form, and 
present ideals of conduct which appeal to the imagination. 

'' On the other hand, those who believe in the social training of children 
through their present recognition of social situations calling for an imme- 
diate response, believe that the natural subject-matter of a programme is 
found in the everyday experiences of children, which are largely bound up 
with the domestic and home occupations, and the fundamental industrial 
work of the community. These differences of belief plainly appear in the 
choice of gift-work and hand-work. We have — 
The constructive versus The creative school 

Use or Utility versus Beauty 

The emphasis on constructive! ("Emphasis on distinction, clas- 

work in wood and paper, and I ifsrstis \ sification and unification of 

sometimes in domestic pro- [ [ elementary qualities 

cesses J 

Emphasis on the product versus Emphasis on the creative pro- 



cess 



Emphasis on the craftsman or 1 f ^ , . , 

,. 1- versus \ Emphasis on the artist 

Emphasis upon doing the real^ j Emphasis upon make-believe 

thing I ^^^^^-^ 1 play 

" There seems to be unanimity of opinion as to the desirability of some 
connected plan of work, which shall prevent a teacher from laying undue 
stress upon the temporary and accidental. There is a general assent to the 
position that no plan of work, however excellent, can be rigidly applied 
everywhere, and under all conditions. Whether the programme be made 
by a collective body or evolved by an individual to meet her own needs, 
the critical question is. What are the true interests of childhood, which 
should grow into permanent tastes and tendencies ? The choice of subject- 
matter is determined by our answers to this question." 



Elementary School Supervision 303 

Is it not time that workers in the field of infant training 
should spend their time and energy not in insisting upon their 
own peculiar and temperamental points of view, but in dis- 
covering how the best that has been devised or suggested in 
every school of practice may be welded together and made a 
feasible basis for educational work ? No wise superintendent 
can be unfriendly to the kindergarten, but it is his duty and 
privilege to strive for less segregation, more open-mindedness, 
and a more cordial and earnest cooperation. 

Pathological Conditions. — School supervision will never 
overlook human conditions. It will view teachers and pupils 
as they are, and not as one would wish to have them. Every 
individual, whether child or adult, has his limitations to meet, 
his burdens to carry, and is always subject to those influences 
which affect temper of mind and spirit, which in turn have an 
effect upon the bodily functions and either encourage or dis- 
courage success. 

Teachers. — It has been shown by statistics, especially in 
Germany, that teachers as a class are more susceptible to 
disease and are more likely to become incapacitated for work 
than many other classes of people. The routine and the 
monotony of school work, however cheerfully they are under- 
taken and however pleasurable they are found to be, leave 
their marks upon all teachers who are not unusually strong 
and able to resist such wear and tear. Moreover, teachers are 
sensitive to approval or disapproval. They are often worried 
and fretted by pupils who are undisciplined at home and are 
not altogether submissive in the school. Teachers are often 
made to feel the dishke and unfriendliness of parents whom 
it is impossible for them to know well enough to make them 
conscious of their sincerity and earnestness. As wage-earners 
they are anxious to please the school authorities, and too often 
sacrifice their pleasure, their rest, and even their health in 
trying to reach those standards which are set for them or 
which they set for themselves. 

Children. — Children, also, passing back and forth from home 
to school and from school to the home, have to contend with 
waves of ignorance and prejudice which often tend to unseat 



304 Educational Administration 

their faith and their courage, and perhaps to embitter their 
lives. Medical examinations show that many have some phys- 
ical ailment which, in a measure, impairs their ability to do 
good work. When parents or teachers know such facts, they 
are scarcely able to make the necessary adjustment. In the 
home the family circle may be too large to permit such 
differentiation and care as the case requires, and in the school 
the classes are so large that individual treatment is well-nigh 
impossible. With fifty children grading all the way from 
the backward and almost defective member by a series of 
sHght individual differences up to the most brilliant, it is hardly 
possible for the teacher to diagnose each case and take into 
consideration those physical, moral, mental, and social in- 
stincts, tendencies, and habits which the modern theory of edu- 
cation cannot ignore. If these pathological aspects of the 
school could be fully understood by all concerned, a long step 
would be taken toward the solution of many troublesome 
questions. 

Scientific Supervision. — It is obvious that supervision has 
to undertake a task here which is at once scientific and full 
of human elements, a task requiring greater skill than the 
mere criticism of recitations or the interpretation and enforce- 
ment of the curriculum and rules. There is required the in- 
sight of the psychologist and the point of view of the biologist 
as well as familiarity with the social conditions under which 
common people live and work. It is in this field and in those 
related to it that the great profession of supervision is to find 
its justification and its success in the future. Every school 
will become a clinic, and every child will be under the eye of 
careful observers whose conclusions will be promptly and 
clearly communicated both to teachers and parents. Quanti- 
tative standards of school work will be thrown out as unworthy 
of consideration, and every human child will be given the 
opportunity to grow in the most normal way and to enjoy his 
achievements, whether great or small. In another chapter 
the physical side of child life will be discussed, and some at- 
tempt will be made to throw light, not only upon the conditions 
as they are, but on the best means of remedying them. This 



Elementary School Supervision 305 

pathological point of view which is now being presented is 
intimately related to every field which supervision is called 
upon to consider, and so the considerations just mentioned are 
to be kept in mind always and everywhere. 

The Grouping of Pupils for Work. — One means of securing 
in primary work a variety of activities with economy of equip- 
ment and effort on the teacher's part is to form the class into 
two, three, or four groups and devise a programme which per- 
mits each group to be doing a different kind of work. Thus 
one or more tables arranged respectively for paper and card- 
board work, painting, or other forms of manual training can 
be used. These three or four groups may be employed at 
the same time at tables, at the blackboard, and in recitation. 

Pupils working in groups learn to develop social control 
and to combine with others in useful effort. The variety of 
activity which this plan favors prevents weariness and makes 
the school attractive and interesting, and we never need be 
afraid of too much interest, provided it leads to fruitful effort. 
It is of course possible to let children work without supervision 
and in such a careless manner that bad habits are formed. 
It takes a teacher who is skilful in organizing and planning 
the work to make the group system highly successful. At 
the same time, it permits the teacher to distribute her atten- 
tion and energies most wisely. Manual training, gymnastics, 
games, athletic sports, and even the ordinary studies permit 
a large amount of group work, and give training in social 
cooperation. 

Teaching how to Study. — The supervisor of elementary 
work is warranted in seeking quality rather than quantity. 
The spirit of the work, the way in which it is accomplished, and 
the habits of appHcation and study formed by the pupils are 
of inestimable value. Training how to study may be made 
one of the highest ends in elementary supervision. The 
teachers, many of them of limited experience, think much of 
subject-matter. The curriculum is before them, and they are 
anxious to accomplish the amount assigned. So the giving 
of lessons and the recitation become of first importance. The 
supervisor, recognizing those more hidden and spiritual values 

X 



3o6 Educational Administration 

which are wrapped up in school life, will give his attention 
not so much to what the child is receiving as to what he is 
actually doing. Has he ability to acquire truth from the 
printed page ; can he discriminate between what is large and 
what is small; between what should be remembered and what 
is of passing consequence ? Are there sufficient study periods ; 
does the teacher study with his pupils, discovering and em- 
phasizing the larger truths ? Does he assign lessons with such 
care that the pupils know not merely what the task is, but 
how it may best be attacked, so that whether in school or at 
home the effort to study may be to good purpose, and there 
may be satisfaction and confidence as the result ? All these 
queries should constantly be in the mind of the thoughtful su- 
pervisor and, little by little, he may develop an entirely new 
and rational conception of what the school is, and the teachers 
will find new opportunities for professional growth in working 
along these broader lines. 

The Supreme Test of the Teacher. — The teacher of the 
youngest children may so guide the thought of the class in 
developing a subject or in reviewing what they have seen or 
experienced that the children are acquiring a logical faculty, 
are able to distinguish between things important and unim- 
portant, and are able to give expression in an orderly way to 
what they have gained. This applies not merely to state- 
ments concerning what they have made with their hands or 
have seen in their excursions to the fields or to the museums, 
but, as well, to what they hear from the teacher and what 
they read from their text-books. ThongJit and its expression — 
this is the true caption for the educative process whether in 
the elementary or the higher schools. The supreme test of 
what the teaching is worth is found in the power which the 
pupils have acquired to discover truth and express it. The 
best supervision directs itself to this chief end. 

The teacher in his daily preparation for the classroom will 
plan and arrange such tasks as require real application and 
thought in a definite field, so that pupils may early learn to be 
responsible, and may develop self-direction and self-activity. 
Work that has no higher function than to keep children 



Ele^nentary School Supervision 307 

busy, whether in the kindergarten, or the grades, should be 
eschewed. 

Study Periods at Home and in School. — It follows from what 
has been said that the ability to study, involving as it does 
both consecutive attention and concentration of mind, deserves 
constant oversight by all who are responsible for the progress 
of school work. Every study period, whether in the primary 
or grammar school, should be supervised by the teacher. 
Even though he may have to perform some other work, he 
should have prepared the class for their study in such a way 
that they know just what to do and how to do it. The same 
remark applies to study periods at home, but here the diffi- 
culty of supervision appears to be much greater. There are 
many variable factors. - The conditions in some homes make 
it next to impossible for quiet work with comfortable sur- 
roundings. The teacher will need to know what these con- 
ditions are, and will, as far as possible, secure the cooperation 
of parents in minimizing the obstacles which they present. 
He will also make a daily inventory of what the pupils have 
accomplished at home, and will thus train them to the same 
sense of responsibility for their home work which they feel 
for the work done under the eye of the teacher. Here, then, 
is another large field for supervision. Such painstaking ef- 
fort as this is not usually found where the sole initiative 
springs from the teacher. Its value must be often reiterated, 
and teachers must be asked to report upon their success in 
accomplishing the desired ends. Jt should never be forgot- 
ten, however, that it is just as important to prevent too much 
home study on the part of conscientious pupils, as it is to in- 
duce the class, as a whole, to do the amount which is reason- 
able. Nothing is more reprehensible in school management 
than to permit pupils of grammar school age to carry home 
all their books with the idea of learning all their lessons for 
the following day. It is much nearer the ideal method to 
prohibit all home study and have everything done in the 
schoolroom. But there is certainly a golden mean which the 
supervisor should help the teachers to discover. 

The Recitation. — In the German school, the period of reci- 



3o8 Educational Administration 

tation is largely devoted to teaching. Herein lies the supreme 
excellence of the best European schools. The highly trained 
teacher, having perfect command of his subject in an orderly 
way, develops, step by step, the process of thinking which he 
desires his pupils to follow. The powers of observation, rea- 
soning, and memory are all exercised and in such a way as to 
make the lesson both informational and discipHnary. As 
American teachers become more highly educated and trained, 
we are likely to see equally good teaching in our own schools 
and yet there is something in the recitation as understood by 
American teachers which is to be conserved and made still 
more efficacious, and that is the social experience which it 
gives where a sympathetic teacher invites the freest and most 
hearty cooperation. Under the best conditions the American 
child is more spontaneous and ready to contribute his ideas 
than the German child. There is a greater degree of sym- 
pathy, and the spirit of the school is consistent with the ideals 
of democratic government and the necessity for initiative on 
the part of every one who is to achieve success. Here, again, 
supervision must step in and find the proper balance between 
the respective parts to be played by the teacher and pupil in 
the recitation. We can learn much from European examples, 
but we cannot blindly imitate or copy them. We must de- 
velop a type of teaching and school discipline which is thor- 
oughly American and which favors the highest development 
of individual power and social adaptation. 

Marking and Reports to Parents. — How shall the modern 
supervisor of educational work view the marking system, and 
what principles shall guide him in deciding what his attitude 
shall be } To what extent shall the marking system be used 
as an incentive in the elementary school ? Should the informa- 
tion conveyed to parents concerning their children's progress 
be quantitative or qualitative .-' These are rather important 
questions, but if the pathological and ethical elements of 
child culture are kept in mind, it would not seem difficult to 
answer them. The teacher's highest aim should be to awaken 
the interest of his pupils and secure from them the most cor- 
dial and earnest cooperation. For the furtherance of this 



Elementary School Supervision 309 

end there are several incentives much higher than the desire 
for high marks or the ambition to excel the accomplish- 
ment of some one else. If the lower incentives are given place, 
the higher ones are crowded out and their influence is lost. 
As students advance toward high school and college work, 
there may be some argument for the use of marks as an 
incentive, but in the grammar school they should be used for 
purposes of record mainly, and should not be made known 
to pupils. In communicating with parents, which, of course, 
it is well to do, the chief purpose should be to give such 
information as may enable them to aid the teacher in further- 
ing the best interest of the child. Any physical, moral, or 
mental disability discovered in the school should be made 
known to parents. Persistent indifference and vicious de- 
meanor should also become subjects of conference between 
the home and the school. Beyond this it would seem unwise 
to go. A simple card, using the letters A, B, C, D, etc., to 
indicate the grade of a child's efforts and accomplishments, 
as excellent, satisfactory, unsatisfactory, or poor, may do no 
harm, but parents should be educated to realize that the best 
that the teacher has done for the child or that the child has 
done for himself, is more or less subtle and elusive, and does 
not lend itself to quantitative statements. Why should educa- 
tors pretend to believe in the capacity of the child for higher 
spiritual attainment, and yet present to home and society 
that view of the school which has to do with loaves and 
fishes } 

The Improvement of Method. — It has long been recognized 
that teaching is both a science and an art. Teachers need 
some clear and rational principles to which they can refer in 
teaching the several subjects. It is a part of good super- 
vision to make sure that a few fundamental things are so 
impressed that teachers will not forget them. If necessary, 
let them be printed in the form of a bulletin and fastened up 
in the schoolroom. Professor James, in his most helpful book 
entitled Talks to Teachers} has suggested a number of prin- 
ciples which every teacher should know and understand. 

1 James, Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals, p. 33. 



3IO Educational Administration 

The following statement concerning " reactions " is so lucid 
and self-evident that it might easily become a watchword in 
any school system : — 

" No reception without reaction, no impression without correlative ex- 
pression, — this is the great maxim which the teacher ought never to 
forget. 

" An impression which simply flows in at the pupil's eyes or ears, and in 
no way modifies his active life, is an impression gone to waste. It is physi- 
ologically incomplete. It leaves no fruits behind it in the way of capacity 
acquired. Even as mere impression, it fails to produce its proper effect 
upon the memory ; for, to remain fully among the acquisitions of this latter 
faculty, it must be wrought into the whole cycle of our operations. Its 
motor consequences are what clinch it. Some effect due to it in the way of 
an activity must return to the mind in the form of the sensation of having 
acted, and connect itself with the impression." ^ 

The rules laid down by the same writer on " interest " are 
no less binding : — 

" Any object not interesting in itself may become interesting through 
becoming associated with an object which already exists. The two 
associated objects grow, as it were, together : the interesting portion sheds 
its quality over the whole ; and thus things not interesting in their own 
right borrow an interest which becomes as real and as strong as that of 
any natively interesting thing." 

Also : — 

" From all these facts there emerges a very simple abstract programme 
for the teacher to follow in keeping the attention of the child : Begin with 
the line of his native interests, and offer him objects that have some imme- 
diate connection with these." 

And again : — 

" Next, step by step, connect with these first objects and experiences 
the later objects and ideas which you wish to instill. Associate the new 
with the old in some natural and telling way, so that the interest, being 
shed along from point to point, finally suffuses the entire system of objects 
of thought." 

The prescription given by Professor James concerning 
voluntary attention is also of universal application : — 

"The subject must be made to show new aspects of itself ; to prompt 
new questions ; in a word, to change. From an unchanging subject the 
attention inevitably wanders away." 

1 James, Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals, p. 94. 



Elementary School Stipervision 311 

" The genius of the interesting teacher consists in sympathetic divina- 
tion of the sort of material with which the pupil's mind is likely to be 
already spontaneously engaged, and in the ingenuity which discovers paths 
of connection from that material to the matters to be newly learned." 

The criticism and advice of the supervisor comes with 
much greater weight if he can direct the teacher to such a 
storehouse of good principles as this to which we have 
referred. Psychology in the abstract is of little use to 
teachers, but when interpreted in the light of common, every- 
day experience and when seen to be simply the expression of 
our highest common sense and judgment, it will prove a 
star of hope to any teacher. 

New Paths of Progress. — Two classes of students have 
thrown much light on the problem of child training in recent 
years : first, those who have pursued child study by gather- 
ing data concerning every aspect of child activity and life 
and then formulated conclusions ; and, second, those who 
have applied definite tests to large classes of pupils in order 
to find some basis for methods of teaching. It is too early 
yet to say how much child study has contributed to our actual 
knowledge. It has doubtless conferred great benefits upon 
those who have taken part in the investigations made. It 
has discovered some differences between boys and girls with 
respect to endurance ; it has brought into some prominence 
the physical aspects of child life, and has led school officers 
to be more alert in discovering defects of sight and hearing 
and in the best methods of dealing with them. The super- 
visor should be quick to recognize any definite contribution 
made by this class of investigators. He should also encour- 
age in teachers that open-mindedness and insight which 
belongs to the professional educator. 

Still more important is the contribution now being made 
by those who are seeking a scientific basis for school practice. 
While they do not make large claims at present, they are 
confident that the work they are doing, if continued, will give 
to teaching and school management a more rational basis. 
In the light of these newer studies, teaching, like the practice 
of medicine, will become highly differentiated. Each special 



312 Educational Administration 

subject, like each special disease, will be seen to require a 
particular kind of treatment. The problem to be solved is. 
What special method is required for the development of each 
mental function ? Professor Thorndike has this to say on 
this topic : — 

" Training the mind means the development of thousands of particular 
independent capacities, the formation of countless particular habits, for the 
working of any mental capacity depends upon the concrete data with which 
it works. Improvement of any one mental function or activity will improve 
others only in so far as they possess elements common to it, also. The 
amount of identical elements in different mental functions and the amount 
of general influence from special training are much less than common 
opinion supposes. The most common and surest source of general im- 
provement of a capacity is to train it in many particular connections."^ 

When experimental psychology has been able to formulate 
a considerable number of rules based upon long and careful 
observation, the work of supervision will become at once a 
matter of increased knowledge and skill, and the work of 
teaching will be greatly elevated and refined. 

REFERENCES 

Thompson, A. I. The Superintendent and the Primary Teacher, Fo- 
rum 31 : 47. — Prince, J. T. The Evolution of School Supervision, Ed. 
Rev. 22: 148. — Rowe, S. The Physical Nature of the Child; Proceed- 
ings of the International Kindergarten Union 1892-1908; The Kinder- 
garten Magazine. Chicago, 1 899-1 908. — Riggs, K. D. W. Children's 
Rights. Boston, 1892. — Lang, O. H. Outlines of Herbart's Pedagog- 
ics. — James, W. Talks to Teachers on Psychology and Life's Ideals. — 
McMurry, C. A. Elements of General Method. — Landon, J. The Prin- 
ciples and Practice of Teaching and Class Management. New York, 1894. 
— Button, S. T. School Management. — Oppenheim, N. The Develop- 
ment of the Child. — Bagley, W. The Educative Process. — Collar, G., 
and Crook, C. W. School Management and Methods of Instruction. — 
White, E. E. School Management. New York, 1894. — Perez, B. 
(Christie). The First Three Years of Childhood. Syracuse, 1889. — 
Fitch, J. G. Lectures on Teaching. New York, 1887. — Compayrd, G. 
(Payne). Lectures on Pedagogy. Boston, 1887. — Shearer, W. J. 
The Grading of Schools. New York, 1898. — Pickard, J. L. School 
Supervision. New York, 1890. — Snedden and Allen. School Reports 
and School Efficiency. New York, 1908. Correlation of Studies, Re- 
port of Sub-committee of the Committee of Fifteen. — Clapp, H. L. Ex- 

1 Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, p. 248. 



Elementary School Supervision 313 

aminations, Ed. 21 : 387. — Leonard, M. H. School Examinations, Ed. 21 : 
282. — McMurry, F. and C. The Method of the Recitation. — Greenwood, 
J. M. The Qualifications of Principals, U. S. Bur. of Ed., Circ. of Inf. i88g. 

— Buehrle, R. K. School Supervision in Pennsylvania, Ed. Rev. 8:461. 

— Draper, A. S. Shall we have School Supervision in the Rural Dis- 
tricts ? Address at the State Ass'n of Sch. Com. and Supts., Syracuse, 
Nov. 1906. — De Garmo, C. Interest and Education. — Thorndike, E. L. 
Principles of Teaching. — Thorndike, E. L. The EUmination of Pupils 
from School. — Draper, A. S. Plans of Organization for School Purposes 
in Large Cities, Ed. Rev. 6: i. — Winterburn, R. V. Methods in Teach- 
ing (Stockton Methods in Elementary Schools). — Keith, J. A. H. Ele- 
mentary Education. Chicago, 1905. — Fitzpatrick, F. A. Departmental 
Teaching in Grammar Schools, Ed. Rev. 7 : 439. — Dodd, C. I. Introduc- 
tion to Herbartian Principles of Teaching. London, 1898. — Home, 
H. H. The Philosophy of Education. New York, 1905. — Parker, F. W. 
Talks on Teaching. — Sully, J. Teachers' Handbook of Psychology. 
New York, 1888. — Lincoln, D. F. Sanity of Mind. New York, 1900. 
St. Louis, 1904. German Educational Exhibition: Elementary and Ad- 
vanced Education. — Gilder, R. W. The Kindergarten: An Uplifting 
Social Influence in the Home and in the District, N. E. A. 1903 : 388. 

— Perry, A. C. The Management of a City School. New York, 1908. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

The Elementary Course of Study 

Because the American elementary school represents the 
most indigenous and most fully developed form of American 
education, and because it has been for many years the 
theatre of greatest pedagogic activity, it usually claims chief 
attention of educational administrators. Unlike European 
practice, where historic and social causes produced well-estab- 
lished secondary school systems before public elementary 
education became general, America first developed elemen- 
tary education, and it has been universal for pubUc secondary 
education to begin where elementary education leaves off — 
at the end of eight grades or years of work. English, Ger- 
man, and French secondary education begins much earlier 
than with us, and for several years of the ordinary school 
period the two kinds of schools parallel each other, present- 
ing essentially different kinds of work. In one sense, there- 
fore, much greater responsibility is thrown upon the American 
elementary school, for during its eight years it must provide 
for all classes of children to be educated, both those who at 
fifteen or sixteen enter upon industry, and those who con- 
tinue on to secondary school and college. 

I. THE CONTENT OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE 

The Older School Curricula of the elementary school, even 
to within a few decades, were relatively simple. The school 
devoted itself to what are called the formal studies, giving 
scant attention to anything outside of the vernacular subjects 
(reading, writing, spelling, grammar, composition, declama- 

314 



The Elementary Course of Study 315 

tion and language lessons), arithmetic, geography, and his- 
tory. Mention was frequently made in the older programmes 
of morals and manners, object lessons, physical training, 
singing, bookkeeping, and drawing, but it is not in evidence 
that these usually received much attention. The content of 
each subject was defined by the text-book, and it was the ap- 
proved method to follow the text rigorously. Courses of 
study were framed locally, and as there was little supervision 
except that of the more intelligent members of the commu- 
nity serving on school committees, each school was able to 
exercise considerable independence. In form, courses of in- 
struction were very brief, as a rule, specifying quantitative 
requirements in terms of pages of text-books, and indicating 
topics in the briefest possible way. But the essential aims 
did not vary widely ; certain specific ends of habit forming 
and memorization were chiefly sought. Skill and correctness 
in the use of oral and written speech, and in use of numbers, 
and a memorized content of geography and history, consti- 
tuted the main purposes of instruction. Within the school 
little emphasis was laid on conscious application of the 
things learned. 

Recent Developments. — But in the progressive movement 
for the enrichment of elementary school curricula with which, 
among others, the names of President Eliot and Colonel 
Parker are identified, there grew up the aim of utilizing the 
elementary school period for much more than formal training. 
It was contended that the period of child life from six years 
of age to fourteen should not be devoted exclusively, or even 
chiefly, in the elementary school, to the narrow range of 
formal studies ; but that this was a most favorable time for 
the cultivation of a wide experience in the spheres of nature 
and society. Knowledge of kinds interesting, or useful, or 
both should be acquired during this period ; aesthetic and 
moral sentiments should be developed ; abundant opportuni- 
ties for self-expression should be made possible ; and the 
education given should be such as would grow out of and 
reenforce the life which the child was living, to the end that 
preparation for fuller living could be most effectively accom- 



3i6 Educational Administration 

plished. So the older formal studies were modified and 
enriched ; their character was changed in the direction of add- 
ing a richer and more varied content. There were added to 
the curriculum, also, literature, nature study, drawing and art, 
music, hygiene, and manual work of various sorts. In some 
measure these changes are shown in the following schemes 
taken from different periods nearly twenty years apart. 
(See opposite page.) 

The Enriched Course of Study, therefore, represents the 
attempt of modern education, in a democracy, to utilize the 
elementary school period to the fullest possible extent as a 
period of living and of preparation for even more complete 
living. The following quotation expresses these ideals 
fairly : — -••y 

" In order to get a preliminary view of what has taken place in recent 
years in the enrichment of our school course, we will merely tabulate the 
various kinds of new educative material that have lately lodged themselves 
in the school. 

" First is the best literature suitable for young folks from the treasuries 
of our own country and from foreign lands. It reaches back into all ages 
that produced valuable literature, and includes all varieties. This alone 
is a field abounding in rich resources. Closely allied to it is history, that 
of our own land and of other nations, including early traditions and stories, 
the striking epochs of the historic nations, the biographies of leading 
characters, whether heroes, poets, generals, statesmen, pioneers, religious 
teachers, scholars, artists, scientists, men or women. 

" Second is the broad sweep of natural science studies, nature study in 
and out of doors. In its wide range this includes select contributions from 
a dozen great sciences, familiar to popular report, and each including a 
body of knowledge far beyond the mastery of a single man of learning. 
Especially in its more striking and commonplace manifestations, and in 
its applications to men's needs, science study is quietly pushing its way 
into schoolrooms and under the very noses of school-teachers. 

" In close connection with geography and natural science, industrial 
and vocational studies (directly and indirectly) are supplying us with rich 
materials and bulky text-books for children to master. 

" Out of all this is emerging the vague but gigantic form of a new study, 
sometimes called manual training. It is now spreading its clumsy limbs 
somewhat promiscuously through the whole school course. No one seems 
to know as yet how large a place this intruder is to occupy, but a fear falls 
upon many that some of the old studies and teachers may have to move 
out of the way or shrink back into a corner to make room for this giant 
upstart. 



The Elementary Course of Study 



317 






2 


Oh' 




1 






00 


00 0000 0000 






1- 


00 0000 0000 


1 1 






CO 


MO 00 OOOOIQ 






10 


00 00 0000 




^ 




■* 


00 00 0000 


8 




eo 


00 Q 000 10 




00 
00 
00 





9 2 2 000 







ocT 


iH 


""J-ci-^-^ig •«,;? voovS 







VO 


CO 
CO 
00 




t^ v£)00w\O \O00vO 

1^ \o\oroco -^vo^ 




H 


1^' 


000 0000 iin 




g 


t- 


g •noo 0000 |in 




ks^ 


00 000 




1^ 
Pi 
<: 

w 


>o 


u-10 000 \ m 

1 H 




»*< 


00 000 




eo 


000 




VO 




CI 


000 


1 




I-l 


«<S«'S.« 2 2 c^o^^o 









H 




CO 
CO 










00 


HHHHH HHHHH H H 






l- 


HHHH HHHHH H 






fq 


co 


H H H >< >< >< H 









10 


H >< H H H H 






< 
J 


»!< 


H *« H H >< H >< 






U 


eo 


H*<H H H H HH 






Pi 

D 
U 


c<t 


H >{ H H H H 






r-l 


H »< *< »< H 






















%■ 

u 

0. 

3 
C 






„S 8-«> 

Kg g.g«..M. 

'2,^ c ;s ^ 'iS '5 . . -1 






C n-o'SS 2 MoJ3 ^ Ji 3)0 9. S 3 ui'm ^--^ 3|3 








s^ 



•0 .S (^ 
g- c 2 






E -a -a 







3i8 Educational Administration 

" Fourthly, the physical training of children is taking on larger propor- 
tions, and is demanding definite time and place in the programme, with 
gymnasia and equipment. 

" Fifthly, there is getting to be a vague but pronounced feeling, almost 
conviction, that the fine arts have been badly neglected in schools and in 
the general scheme of education. 

" Sixthly, the primary school of late has taken up into itself a good 
share of the kindergarten ideas and materials, games, stories, and social 
activities, while from the high schools the grammar grades have begun to 
draw down algebra, geometry, German, and French, and even Latin to fill 
up what one might suppose must be a depleted course of study. 

" Seventhly, and lastly, we should not forget that a goodly number of 
jealous schoolmasters demand that we shall begin to put some real stress 
on the mastery of reading, writing, and arithmetic. 

" Summing it all up, it is not too much to say that the school has 
to bring the whole range of human life and activity in select* 
under its purview. This comprehends broadly the whole his! 
kind in its typical and striking manifestations, the whole run 
animate and inanimate, and its relation to man, and all those 
stitutions, occupations, and traditional bodies of knowledge which man 
has accumulated in the course of the centuries. A complete university, 
with all its multitudes of sciences covering the full range of human 
thought and experience, has no broader foundation than the course of 
study in the elementary school." — McMurry, Course of Shidy in Eight 
Grades, pp. 1-3. 

Congestion of the Course. — While new material was being 
thus introduced into elementary school curricula, and peda- 
gogical demands being made that the formal studies should 
be related and vitalized, the actual requirements in the formal 
studies themselves were not greatly abated. Tradition proved 
very strong in combating the elimination of topics from 
arithmetic, grammar, and geography, even though these were 
quite unrelated to the needs and capacities of the majority of 
elementary school pupils. As a consequence, the elemen- 
tary curriculum, especially in the upper grades, has become 
overcrowded. " Such an enormous number of unrelated 
topics is presented to the child that organization into a uni- 
fied whole is almost impossible by any mind, much less the 
untrained mind of the child." ^ Several harmful results have 
followed : teachers have found themselves required to teach 
subjects in which they had no adequate preparation, and they 

^ Payne, Elementary School Curricula, p. 42. 



The Elementary Course of Study 319 

were apt to apply to the enrichment subjects the formal 
methods to which they were accustomed in the older teaching, 
with a consequent destruction of interest on the part of the 
child ; under the pressure of too many recitations both old 
and new subjects were superficially taught; teachers and 
pupils were harassed by the multiplicity of recitations, and 
the health of children was often affected ; in planning for 
the newer studies, teachers and supervisors were constantly 
experimenting with novel adjustments, so that patrons accused 
the schools of being whimsical and devoted to fads ; and 
finally reactions to simr^^programmes have frequently taken 

^ce, with harmfuljj^^lMfcb public appreciation of education. 
^gj^ pents of enriched courses had all 

|Hg beelPJnsisting th^nr was not merely by adding subjects 
rriculum that elementary education could be funda- 
PentalI}F improved. The older subjects and the new must 
be integrated or correlated so that each unit of work under- 
taken by the child would make contributions of habit, skill, 
appreciation, knowledge, and sentiment, of the kinds that 
should be educationally in demand. Correlation of the 
studies, it was claimed, about proper centres, would result in 
improved education, and would solve the problems of con- 
gestion. Many experiments at correlation have been tried, 
and so far with some success in the lower grades ; but in the 
upper grades the various subjects still tend to retain their 
individuality, and, whatever the idea of correlation has ac- 
complished in the way of giving a richer and more related 
content to these studies, it has not provided devices whereby 
congestion of the course has been relieved. In fact, under 
departmental teaching, which has been inevitable in such 
subjects as manual training and cooking, and is frequently 
found also in drawing, music, and science, the tendency has 
been more toward individualization of the studies, and their 
isolation from each other. 

The Reduction of Quantitative Requirement in each subject 
seems to be at present the most feasible means of producing 
a workable curriculum. In no respect does it seem possible 
to omit subjects which have found a place in the elementary 



320 Educational Administration 

school. Each has its valuable contribution to make. But 
within these subjects many topics may be omitted. The 
standard of selection should be based on actual social needs, 
and the educational values realizable in each study. Less 
and less do educators contemplate using topics from, e.g., gram- 
mar or arithmetic, merely as means of mental discipline. Each 
study much furnish its appropriate share of mental training, 
but must also have a content that is socially worth while, in 
ideas, appreciations, ideals, and must be so taught as to con- 
currently meet the needs of training along formal lines. The 
tendency has been for writers and text-book makers to attach 
undue importance to the subject^'^ff^hich they have be^M| 
interested. In the planning of cou rses of study it, ^^^d 
become more and more necessary f^r'those in a "'Supervisory ' 
position, who are able to take account of the n^^b;^ knj 
capacities of the child with reference to the curriculum asi 
whole, to cut down the demands of various specialists. At 
present, so long as individual subjects are taught in isolation, 
this is the most profitable course for the relief of congestion.^ 

2. THE FORM OF THE COURSE OF STUDY 

Primitive Forms. — When the content of the elementary cur- 
riculum was simple and mostly expressed in terms of pages 
of text-books, a mere outline sufficed as a programme of 
studies. Usually those for a given year were grouped in one 
division, or grade, as it was most commonly called, and not 
infrequently it was left to the text-book to give the only other 
statement of requirements. 

1 Other plans that are yet problematic will be discussed under a subsequent 
section (pp. 334 ei seq.'). These are : (a) Individual subjects might be so effectively 
taught as to produce the results now demanded with greatly decreased require- 
ments of time and energy. (^) Daily programmes might be so arranged that at any 
given time the pupil might be carrying but few subjects ; but by means of 
alternations by years or groups of months, all the subjects might be covered. It 
may well be doubted whether a programme which seeks to carry all subjects simul- 
taneously is the best. (<r) Alternative courses might be arranged in the upper 
grades, so that the school would still teach all subjects, but the requirements for 
any one pupil would be diminished. Manual training, commercial arithmetic, 
and drawing might be required for one group of pupils only; while another 
group might take a foreign language, algebra and geometry, and art instead of 
the above studies. 



The Elementary Course of Study 321 

The More Elaborated Course became necessary when a more 
advanced pedagogy frowned upon too close adherence to a 
single text, and when enrichment made desirable the develop- 
ment of the topical method. At its best the modern course 
of study is voluminous ; it contains a plan of work for each 
grade or year, and also a complete statement of the work, 
outlined topically, expected in any subject. It not only 
abounds in suggestions to teachers, but gives them much 
direct aid in indicating references, supplemental reading, and 
other aids. More suggestive still, some of the best courses 
attempt to aid the teacher in correlating related subjects so 
as to integrate the work of the class. Under these circum- 
stances, the course of study, as outlined, becomes a kind of 
guide to the teacher in presenting suggestions as to method, 
useful devices, and collateral work for pupils. The most 
elaborated form of this is found when pamphlets are issued 
describing the work in a single subject, as is occasionally 
done in geography, history, nature study, and language. 

Uniformity and Inflexibility. — To a very slight extent, 
indeed, do the principles of American education permit 
the possibility of elasticity in the elementary school. What 
the course of study contains is prescribed for all pupils alike, 
and this uniformity extends to the area covered by the course 
of study, be it state, county, or city. In its formal aspects 
the course allows no latitude to the teacher for choice or 
selection, though in practice the teacher must often make 
numerous adjustments, and omit many of the things which 
seem to be prescribed ; but the curriculum, as outlined, with 
occasional exception of foreign languages, never expressly 
authorizes any change or adaptation. Hence, in view of the 
introduction of new subjects and the tendency to present an 
elaborate schedule of references and supplemental aids for 
the teacher, this apparent inflexibility has added to the com- 
plaint on the part of teachers regarding the overcrowded 
course. It is undoubtedly true that the more conscientious 
teachers strive to do too much, and to insist too fully on the 
apparent demands of the course ; while others, appreciating 
more the spirit than the letter of the outlined programme of 



32 2 Educational Administration 

studies, make many adjustments. It is probable that the 
effects of uniformity and inflexibiHty in the form of the 
elementary course are administratively harmful. 



3. THE OFFICIAL SOURCES OF THE ELEMENTARY COURSE 

Educational Experts within any given area usually formulate 
the elementary course, though in a few states like Massachu- 
setts, where large authority inheres in school boards, these 
bodies formally "prescribe" it. Lay control in this matter 
has largely disappeared; superintendents, whether city or 
county or state, or else expert boards, have almost everywhere 
assumed complete direction. On the other hand, in few cases 
does large responsibility devolve upon the head of an individ- 
ual school, thus providing in American education a marked 
difference from the English system where, under the general 
direction of the National Board, and of local administrative 
authorities, each head master, with his teachers, works out 
the course of study for his school. Within a given area — 
city, county, or sometimes state — the schools with us are 
regarded as part of a system, within which uniformity must 
prevail ; and for this area one or more experts are officially 
responsible for the course. 

The Improvement of the Course, however, is largely accom- 
plished by these experts through incorporating suggestions 
derived from innumerable sources. The curriculum changes 
from year to year, and can be regarded as more or less tenta- 
tive in character, since each new formulation represents 
modifications on previous efforts that are the result of protests 
and suggestions from teachers, the examples of courses de- 
vised for other places, and new pedagogical ideas that have 
been utilized. Progressive school administrators especially 
are constantly on the alert for suggestions, and they borrow 
from a wide range of sources. Educational writings, the 
comments of expert committees appointed to report upon the 
workings of special features, and the results of experience 
elsewhere are all utilized. It is evident, therefore, that in this 



The Elementary Course of Study 323 

field of educational administration the maximum of respon- 
sibility falls upon the body of specialists and experts, for 
here their work is least hampered by tradition and external 
control. 

State Prescriptions occur in the laws of most of the com- 
monwealths, though in most cases the outline of subjects that 
must be taught is vague and general, and serves little else 
than a formal purpose. The exceptions are found in the 
requirements now lodged on the statute books of every state 
and territory, that the phases of physiology and hygiene re- 
lating to the effect of stimulants and narcotics shall be taught. 
By law this teaching is prescribed in detail, not only as to 
subject-matter, but as to place and time in the programme of 
studies. Usually there is included a statement of penalties 
that will be incurred if the law is not observed. Another 
prescription that is not uncommon requires that all teaching 
shall be in the English language, and permission is extended 
to teach in a foreign language only if it does not interfere 
with the learning of English. In the state of Maryland is 
found what appears to be the only exception to this rule ; 
there it is permissible to teach in German exclusively in 
certain public schools. Again, it is often prescribed that the 
history of the state shall be taught (especially in some 
Southern states) and the title of the book which may be used 
for this purpose is given. Recently there has been added to 
the prescriptions in some states the requirement that humane 
instruction shall be given. The more recent school laws seem 
to indicate a spread of the tendency to fix courses of instruc- 
tion by legislation. " Physical training shall be included in 
the branches to be regularly taught in the city school districts 
and in all institutions supported wholly or partly by money 
received from the state " is a requirement in the new law of 
Ohio. In Massachusetts, " Every city and town containing 
twenty thousand inhabitants or more shall maintain the 
teaching of manual training as part of both its elementary 
and high school system." 

State Courses. — The development of the state course of 
study is an expression of centralizing tendencies. The state 



324 Educational Administration 

administration of education, of course, implies power to make 
and regulate the course of study. But so strong has been 
local interest in this matter, and so effective the efforts of 
localities in meeting general requirements and standards, that 
the formulation by the state of a detailed plan of work is 
relatively uncommon. In New Jersey the State Board of 
Education has power " in connection with the County Super- 
intendent of Schools, to prescribe the course of study " for 
the public schools. The system of examinations maintained 
by the State Department of New York carries with it, of 
course, the responsibility of giving its demands in detail, 
which amounts to the prescription of a course, exemplified in 
numerous syllabi and in the examination questions. Several 
states have had prepared in the State Department suggestive 
courses which might or might not be adopted. Massa- 
chusetts, Indiana, and California have done this, and in some 
cases have thus exerted considerable influence on local boards. 
The State Superintendent of Arkansas must prepare a course 
of study " which shall be followed as far as practicable," but 
as he is prohibited from 'naming any text-books, it can be seen 
that such course must be very flexible. A state course in 
outline form exists in Washington which county superintend- 
ents are required to enforce. In Utah a special commission 
of experts is created to prepare and prescribe a state course 
for schools, except those in "county school districts of the 
first class, and cities of the first and second class." Oregon 
also has a state course, which is prescriptive for districts of 
the second and third class, thus exempting cities only. Mary- 
land, North Carohna, and Tennessee have detailed courses of 
study uniform throughout the state. 

County and City Courses. — Outside of the states above 
mentioned, it is customary to find courses of study organized 
for the county as the unit of rural school control, and the city 
as a separate school organization within the county. In the 
latter the Superintendent is primarily the authority ; in the 
former, the County Superintendent, or the County Board, 
which in many cases still retains this function. In each case 
there are often committees of teachers and principals who, 



The Elementary Course of Study 325 

formally or not, act as advisers to the legally constituted 
authority. 

Tendencies No uniform tendency is at present discover- 
able in the area over which a uniform course of study is ex- 
pected to operate, except in the case of cities, which, in this 
as in other respects, tend toward local autonomy. Theoreti- 
cally, much can be said in favor of state courses, but it is 
doubtful if they present opportunities for local adjustment 
and accommodation sufficient to meet the needs of American 
education. On the other hand, local authorities may not pos- 
sess sufficient ability to deal with matters of this kind, which 
preeminently require expert judgment. It seems probable 
that there must ultimately be found machinery which will 
permit large opportunities to local areas in the way of initia- 
tive, subject, however, to approval by state authorities. Not 
merely counties, but districts and individual schools, should 
have liberty to make adjustments and variations ; but no 
course should become effective until it has met the approval 
of some state authority enjoined with responsibilities of main- 
taining general educational standards. 

4. PRINCIPLES APPLICABLE TO THE MAKING OF COURSES 
FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

It has been seen that the modern pedagogic movement has 
imposed new and extended obligations upon the elementary 
schools. Having a curriculum of possible studies more exten- 
sive than any pupil can take effectively, and being obliged to 
economize energy for the sake of the physical well-being of 
those who are to be educated, the school must put a new 
meaning into the phrase " educational efficiency." Educa- 
tional science and theory have outrun practice, and experi- 
mentation has been slow and difficult. But the so-called new 
education has brought into view certain principles which 
would seem to be sufficiently accepted to be regarded as 
determining in progressive action at present. The elemen- 
tary curriculum should be : id) related to life ; {b) flexible, 
according to the characteristics of groups to be educated ; 



326 Educational Administration 

{c) capable of utilizing the social and natural environment of 
the child; (d) adjusted so as to provide that education 
which is complementary to the educative influences of other 
agencies; {e) integrated in its final effects ; (/) so detailed and 
flexible as to permit the teacher much freedom, while giving 
fullest guidance ; (^) dynamic or progressive, and (/^) adjusted 
so as to reflect local initiative and central control and ap- 
proval. 

a. An Education related to Life is more than ever the aim 
of modern pedagogy. The demand can only be made intel- 
ligible when translated into specific terms. It means that 
what is expended in the way of educational effort must some- 
how function in increased social or individual usefulness ; and 
it becomes the business of educational administration to see 
that all that is taught by teacher and learned by pupil must 
so function. Subjects may not remain in the curriculum, 
methods may not be employed, simply because tradition has 
it so ; the modern educator is under obligation to present 
evidence or satisfactory hypothesis as to what service this or 
that effort results in. Education for life, in this sense, means 
not merely the life of the individual, but the social life as 
well, and the social life which takes due account of the gener- 
ations to come — all of which is conveyed by the phrase " the 
wider social efficiency."^ 

The child is educable along four lines sufficiently distinct 
to guide our choice of ways and means : {a) physical ; (d) vo- 
cational ; (c) social (or moral, religious, and civic) ; and 
(d) cultural (in a somewhat narrow sense of the word, em- 
bracing individual development along lines of pure aesthetic 
and intellectual interests for the ends of personal refinement 
and satisfaction). That education may be called general 
which contributes in an undifferentiated way to two or more 
of these aims, as the mechanics of reading, e.^:, may contrib- 
ute to cultural, vocational, and social ends. But these four 
chief ends of education are largely realizable for each child 
in the life now being lived and in the maturity to come. 
Each end can be reached by appropriate effort, and, within 

^ See Kidd, Principles of Western Civilization. 



The Elementary Course of Study 327 

limits, each end should be kept in mind during the entire 
school career. In attaining these ends, the course of study 
inust enable the teacher {a) to put the child in possession of 
the social inheritance (variously segregated as religious, 
scientific, aesthetic, and vocational) ; and {b) to give the child 
opportunity for expression and utilization along each of the 
four great lines. The fundamental difficulties are : {a) to 
determine how much and what parts of the social inheritance 
are usable and vital to any given group of children ; and {U) 
to find means and openings for expression and utilization of 
a psychologically genuine character in the modern life of 
urban residence and specialized vocation. But experimenta- 
tion will resolve these difficulties, if the fundamental principle 
is kept constantly in view : does the study, exercise, experi- 
ence, habit, etc., sought actually function in some physical, 
vocational, cultural, or social result which is worth while } 

b. Flexibility as a Feature of elementary education is 
hardly yet recognized, but is a necessary corollary from the 
above principle. Not all groups of children are alike in their 
physical, vocational, social, and cultural needs; city groups 
differ from rural groups, negroes from whites, wage-earners' 
children from those of people of higher incomes, delinquent 
and defective children from those of normal character. At 
present, elementary courses vary from one place to another, 
and are different in reform schools, schools for defec- 
tives, and schools for normal children. In some cities where 
special classes exist, the curriculum varies in accordance with 
the supposed needs of the segregated children. Philanthropy 
at present maintains many schools having elementary courses 
with more of the vocational and social element than can be 
found in the public schools. Where indirect or unspecialized 
vocational education has been introduced (manual training, 
industrial arts, domestic arts), it is differentiated for boys and 
for girls. The widespread demand for more vocational edu- 
cation will undoubtedly result in the creation of alternative 
courses in elementary schools, perhaps with uniform social 
and cultural elements, differentiated according to the needs 
of the various groups concerned. This process has gone on 



328 Educational Administration 

in college and secondary school, and there is no inherent 
reason why differentiation should not reach farther down, 
provided no further excuse is given for social separation into 
different schools than now exists on the race basis in many 
states. Our large universities and secondary schools, though 
they have educational differentiation, do not make social seg- 
regation necessary. 

American public education may not follow the class or 
caste lines of European schools ; but in the interests of effec- 
tiveness it must recognize as fully as possible the varied educa- 
tional possibilities of the following kinds of groups of children: 
{a) groups differentiated according to natural or previously 
acquired abilities ; {b) those distinguished by home economic 
conditions ; and {c) those with different educational destina- 
tions. The extent of such differentiation is strictly limited by 
the economic resources of the community and the administra- 
tive resources of the school or local area. 

c. The Utilization of the Environment of the Child is recog- 
nized in modern pedagogy as an indispensable means to 
effective education. Surrounding nature and the social life 
must be incessantly drawn on for concrete materials, illustra- 
tions, and opportunities forexpression and experience. Hence 
the need in the courses of study for considerable latitude 
allowed to class and to teacher : hence text-books, if not made 
for local use, must be actively supplemented by pictures, 
objects, pamphlets, etc., all cooperating to the development of 
local community resources for the teacher. The problems in 
arithmetic, the materials for science study, the objects or proj- 
ects for industrial arts work, the concrete interpretative 
materials for history and geography, must come from the 
local environment, and permit of direct adjustment to the 
children being taught. Recognition of this principle will 
tend to magnify the tentative and suggestive features of the 
courses of study, and will cause that instrument as well as 
supervision to put a premium on resourcefulness and initiative 
on the part of the teacher. 

d. The Complementary Character of elementary education 
must receive recognition. The home, the church, the play- 



The Elementary Course of Study 329 

ground, the shop, the press, the street, and the theatre are all 
educational institutions, sometimes good, sometimes not so 
good. What they do positively, the school must supplement 
where desirable ; what they do negatively, the school must 
correct; for the school is the one educational institution 
to-day that consciously represents all society actively and 
consciously acting for educational ends. Moral education, 
for example, as a phase of social education, is a variable mat- 
ter so far as the school is concerned, in the cases of children 
coming from careful homes and with religious training, and 
those from neglectful homes and the absence of any external 
moralization except that which comes from the unfavorable 
atmosphere of the street. The scope of physical education, 
too, must vary widely according to the environment ; for by 
physical education we mean all the measures which, under the 
direction of the school, contribute to prolonged physical effi- 
ciency, embracing nutrition, habituation, instruction, correc- 
tion of defects, and fixing of physical ideals. Under some 
circumstances schools should devote much means and efforts 
to the cultivation of physical well-being ; in others, the custom- 
ary outside agencies may have attended fairly well to that end. 
Unquestionably, a satisfactory plan of physical education for 
the rural community would be insufficient and meagre for the 
urban area ; and the child of the slums has a large social 
claim on society in this matter over the child of more favored 
regions. This general fact now finds ready recognition in 
many cities in the development of medical inspection, and 
provision of playgrounds, baths, clothing, and even, in some 
cases, food. The principle is recognized when it is demanded 
that the city boy be given opportunity for prehminary educa- 
tion in the industrial arts, which are yet, to some extent, the 
easy heritage of the farm boy. 

It will be recalled that European countries have largely 
assumed responsibility for vocational education because mod- 
ern developments in industry have rendered ineffective its 
educational functions ; that similarly their schools still retain 
the right to use religious education as a basis of moral devel- 
opment, a right which is denied to the American schools ; and 



330 Educational Administration 

that where the home cannot or will not perform its full duty 
in physical education, the schools are also taking that over. 
The removal of the school from a position of isolation, and 
its correlation with other educational forces, is desirable, both 
on the grounds of connecting education with actual life, and 
on those of economy of effort. 

e. The Final Integration of Studies and experiences of 
the pupil is an essential aim of the course of study. It may 
be necessary for the pupil to acquire habits piecemeal, to 
develop skill bit by bit, and to gain knowledge by the general 
process of division of labor ; but education is incomplete until 
these are integrated with themselves and with life. At pres- 
ent this aim is accepted, but its realization is largely an un- 
solved problem of method. Isolation has not only charac- 
terized school work as related to hfe, but also school studies 
and practices as related to each other. The widespread 
attempts to develop and apply the principle of correlation 
were aimed to remove this deficiency ; but that procedure has 
not yet proven more than partially effective. It seems inevi- 
table that the natural process of division of labor must continue 
to be recognized in education ; and it is possible that schemes 
must be devised whereby division of labor and separation of 
effort must be followed by periods deliberately devoted to 
synthesis. Other principles recognized above make it clear 
that the integrated products of school activity cannot be the 
same for all children ; but for the children within given groups, 
they may. But the indispensable aim must be that each 
pupil's education shall be integral in character, which is but 
another way of saying that it must function fully. 

/. In its Form the course of study should be primarily a 
guide to the teacher. To this end it should not only exhibit 
in full the content which the teacher is expected to present to 
the child, but should also be fertile in suggestion of means 
and methods. It has been noted that in the older courses 
the teacher's work was mapped out in terms of the page^ of 
a single text-book, and that this was followed by a topical 
system of outlining work, which frequently failed to indicate 
sources at all. A more effective procedure is that which in- 



The Elementary Course of Study 331 

dicates prescribed, alternative, and optional work to the teacher 
by units, and with each unit or division or topic specifies not 
only the texts from which suggestions may be derived, but 
even by paged details the supplemental reading which may 
be followed. These specific references should embrace much 
more material than the teacher will use at one time or than 
the pupil can be expected to compass. But this will give the 
teacher variety of choice, and will enable her within limits to 
individualize the work of the pupil. 

The course of study must exhibit a combination of prescrip- 
tion from central authority and opportunities for exercise of 
the teacher's discretion. To this end it should contain in 
unmistakable form : {a) a minimum of prescriptive work, in 
most subjects at least, which should roughly not require more 
than half the time of the ordinary pupil ; {b) 3. large field of 
alternatives in which a quantitative prescription may be 
made, where teacher and pupil may exercise power of choice ; 
and finally (c) a field of work which may be optional, for ex- 
ample, to be taken by the more capable pupils, or by those 
who have time, or by the teacher who has accomplished all of 
the prescribed work and has time for optional and varied 
exercises. In literature, history, geography, nature study, 
drawing, music, composition, language study, and even arith- 
metic, abundant opportunities exist for making the differenti- 
ations indicated above. When under both alternative and 
prescriptive work many suggestions are given, specific refer- 
ences cited, and suggestions of method developed, the task 
of the teacher is much reduced, and the opportunity and in- 
centive to vary work according to equipment, tastes of pupils, 
and strong interests of the teacher greatly increased. 

£■. Progressive Character. — The course of study should 
be dynamic, in the sense that year by year it is changing, 
being modified in accordance with the results of experience 
and new developments in method. Both in the making of 
the course of study and in making these modifications, the 
rank and file of the teachers should play a prominent part, 
especially in the way of providing suggestions on the basis of 
their experience and study. Under adequate direction, com- 



332 Educational Administration 

mittees of teachers should be formed to investigate particular 
problems, e. g. the work for a given grade, the references and 
citations in a particular subject, or the suggestions as to 
method. After studying the situation, such committee should 
report and make specific recommendations, which should be 
carefully reviewed by some other committee from among 
those standing in supervisory relations. Suggestions and 
modifications must, of course, finally go to the Superintendent 
for approval or veto. But in this way the teaching force, or 
a considerable portion of it, can be enlisted in a self-active 
campaign with regard to the course, and thus a right attitude 
toward it be developed. Successful superintendents have 
produced a variety of devices to accomplish these ends. 
Sometimes the regular course, printed once in four years, 
has each alternate page blank, or has considerable blank 
space after each topic, where additions may be made in 
writing. Mimeographed sheets containing additional sugges- 
tions may be sent from time to time to teachers to be inter- 
leaved in the regular course. Sometimes the entire course is 
in outline, but for each grade only the portion appertaining to 
that grade, with enough clews to the work of the grade before 
or to come to give the teacher some notion of the develop- 
ment of her subject. Sometimes the course is in separate 
pamphlets by subjects. The loose-leaf plan has been suc- 
cessfully tried, each teacher having a binder into which she 
inserts sheets as they appear, these being either the printed 
course by stages as it appears from the Superintendent's 
ofifice, or mimeographed or written additions made within 
the school itself or even original additions made by the 
teacher herself. Under these conditions the course of study 
is to be regarded as a thing always in the making, and yet 
not undergoing revolutionary changes; and its develop- 
ment is measurably within the hands of the teachers them- 
selves. 

h. Combination of Local Initiative and Central Control. — 
The state must determine what the schools shall teach, and 
by means of inspection and other tests it is to be expected 
that centrahzation in the administration of the course of 



The Elementary Course of Study 333 

study wiirincrease. But it should be accepted as a principle 
that the general control of the course of instruction should 
not be prescriptive as to details, nor should it undertake to 
provide for more than a portion of the time of each school 
In other words, the state should outline a certain minimum 
of subjects and of achievement vi^ithin these subjects which 
it claims as its right of supervision ; but outside of this it 
should leave large latitude to the local community, to the 
school, and even, as was suggested before, to the individual 
teacher. For, just as adjustments should be made within 
certain limits for the individual pupil, so also should adjust- 
ments be made for the community, and for the individual 
school. In a metropolitan city, for example, different sections 
vary largely in the attainments and capacities of the children 
dealt with. A uniform course of study for an entire city, 
prescriptive as to most of its features, is a pedagogic ab- 
surdity and offence. Minimum prescriptions, accounting for 
certain essentials, there may well be ; but each course should 
also clearly indicate a large field in which the community, 
the school, and even the teacher has choice of units within 
a quantitative prescription, and also choice in some cases as 
to whether she shall or shall not give certain work. 

But in all of this suggested flexibility, one condition is 
desirable ; wherever choice is exercised, or special adaptation 
made, it should be made a matter of record, and if it repre- 
sent a lasting change, should be approved by superior officers 
of administration. For example, the county course of study 
should be subject to the approval of state authorities; the 
modified course prepared by a single school should be subject 
to approval or veto by the city superintendent ; and the 
modifications introduced by any teachers should be recorded 
or indicated and receive the approval of her supervisors. 
Under these conditions local initiative and central control 
may be efficiently combined and the means of permament 
progress be developed. 



334 Educational Administration 

5. PROBLEMS OF THE ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM 

Most of the problems of the elementary course are peda- 
gogic rather than administrative. Advances in psychological 
and sociological aspects of education have greatly disturbed, 
within recent years, some of the naive considerations on 
which depended schemes of school work in former years. 
The present is a time of transition in the elementary curric- 
ulum, and because overmuch has been sought under the 
plea of enrichment, reduction and systematization are neces- 
sary. The following problems are of especial administrative 
interest : {a) The varying of qualitative prescriptions ; {h) 
development of centres or units of correlation ; {c) modifi- 
cations of weekly or yearly programme; {d) differentiation of 
course according to abilities or educational destination. 

a. Qualitative Prescriptions as indicated in the course are 
at present relatively unfamiliar. By this is meant the degree 
to which learning or ability in execution shall be carried. 
Some things may and should be learned so thoroughly and 
reviewed so frequently that they become automatic. Such 
are tables in arithmetic, some dates in history, some locations 
in geography, grammatical rules, definitions of words, etc. 
Other things may and should be learned simply to the point 
of appreciation and interest, and then allowed to pass. 
Stories read, pictures seen, experiments performed, supple- 
mental reading referred to, may all constitute a valuable 
educational content, even though memory is not required to 
preserve them, and there is no subsequent rehearsal. A 
widespread fault of prevailing courses is that they do not 
enable the teachers to make these distinctions which are 
practically being made all the time, but in a haphazard man- 
ner. Many teachers try to have all types of learning about 
equally effective and permanent ; others neglect some very 
essential matters, as teachers in the higher grades find. The 
problem is to find some means of differentiating and indicat- 
ing to the teacher features of the course which may be learned 
differently in the qualitative sense. 

Probably the most certain course is to recognize at the out- 



The Elementary Course of Study 335 

set that such differences are desirable, and then proceed to 
indicate certain minima which must be learned thoroughly, 
in the full sense of that word. These should be made mat- 
ters of review, year by year, no teacher assuming that previ- 
ous learning has been complete. Then, at the other extreme, 
certain work might be indicated which should be taken for 
the sake of interest and appreciation and dropped, the results 
of this learning being something more intangible. If pupils 
and teachers were not held to equal account for all types of 
school work, and if the degree of learning expected were in- 
dicated, it is probable that there would be less apprehension 
of overcrowding the course. 

b. The Development of Units or Centres of Correlation has 
engaged the minds of educators for many years, but few 
practicable schemes have yet been devised. The tendency 
of human experience to break up into isolated divisions is 
general; and the need that the child, in the learning pro- 
cesses, shall integrate these departments is imperative. The 
machinery of method tends to develop about the specialized 
subjects, and their multiplicity grows. The course of 
instruction should seek, as far as may be, to provide units of 
human experience which may be made the goal of the learn- 
ing process, in the course of the approach to which the pupil 
will acquire various habits, kinds of knowledge, appreciations, 
and sentiments, perhaps by special stages, but which all 
finally unify. In present programmes, e.g., we find only occa- 
sionally a unit of constructive work which may involve learn- 
ing something of history, natural science, drawing, com- 
position, manual art, industrial development, and applied 
mathematics. The mastery of another unit may be made the 
means of advance in patriotic sentiment, knowledge of the 
past, appreciation of geographical significances, and power 
to express in writing. 

At present the difficulty of the problem lies in the fact that 
educational science has not yet devised a considerable num- 
ber of satisfactory units, and especially in connection with 
such as it has produced, it has been unable to provide for a 
sufficient mastery of formal school arts, and of organized and 



336 Educational Administration 

available knowledge. Two faults seem to have characterized 
past efforts in this direction; the units of correlation have 
been too vast and vague; and within them not sufficient pro- 
vision has been consciously and manifestly made for formal 
and definite content processes, and for intensive learning on 
the one hand as against the less definite learning for apprecia- 
tion and interest on the other. It is suggested that the isola- 
tion of smaller units from the fields of human experience 
accessible to the pupil, and within these the deliberate differ- 
entiation of phases to meet the respective needs of intensive 
drill work for specific habit and knowledge on the one hand, 
and general interest, appreciation, and background knowledge 
and sentiment on the other, are greatly needed in present 
courses, and as matters expressly indicated, 

c. General Programme Making in the elementary school has 
so far received no scientific study, hence the problem of util- 
izing the programme as a means of economizing energy and 
increasing efficiency in the elementary school must wait ex- 
perimentation. At present, in any given grade, all subjects 
are carried in parallel, with five or fewer periods per week in 
each, according to the exigencies of the situation. In Euro- 
pean secondary schools a similar plan is followed ; each new 
subject introduced must receive one or more periods in each 
week, until it is not uncommon to find pupils carrying simul- 
taneously ten lines of work or study. In American secondary 
schools, thanks to the Committee of Ten, practice has quite 
changed ; here it is customary to have not more than four 
studies pursued at the same time, but all of these taken in- 
tensively and throughout the year. It is undoubtedly true 
that in the elementary school some of the feehng of over- 
crowding is due to the many lines of study and practice with 
which children are at one time concerned, nine to thirteen 
so-called studies being not uncommon. 

It seems highly probable that experimentation would show 
that fewer studies, pursued more intensively and with fre- 
quent recitations, might in some directions accomplish better 
results. For example, spelling now may appear but twice a 
week, or, if more frequently, for very brief periods. But it 



The Elementary Course of Study 337 

may be that spelling, studied intensively for a month or two, 
might then be dropped and its place taken by some other 
subject, with better results in both. There are good grounds 
for believing that studies which aim primarily at habit form- 
ing should be pursued intensively at least long enough to re- 
sult in some definite product, which could at some subsequent 
stage, when the subject is again being studied, be revived. 
Other types of work, like singing and moral instruction, may, 
on the other hand, be most effective when planned to come 
at weekly intervals. The solution of this problem waits the 
attention of the psychologist, as well as the teacher capable 
of experimentation. 

d. Differentiation of Curriculum into courses in the ele- 
mentary school is still unpopular in American education, 
partly owing to force of tradition, partly owing to fear 
of undemocratic class education. But it seems highly 
probable that such differentiation will take place in urban 
schools, and that the democratic character of education will 
be preserved by making all courses equally free and equally 
optional to all children possessed of the requisite ability. 
Where differentiation of courses should begin, and what 
should be the content of each course, are still problems. 
Experiments already show the entire feasibility of provid- 
ing at the beginning of the seventh grade a special course 
preparatory to high school, and embracing a foreign lan- 
guage and replacing arithmetic with algebra and geometry, 
presented in concrete form.^ Another course could clearly 
emphasize domestic arts for girls not going to high school; 
and another the industrial arts for boys who will not go on, 
but who will enter trades or manufacturing shortly after the 
elementary school period. A fourth course might give con- 
siderable place to business arts and practice, for boys and 
girls who will soon take up work in store and shop. In 
all four courses the vernacular studies, formal and in litera- 
ture, would remain common, as might also history and civics, 
music, and physical training. In very large schools, it might 
be possible to differentiate courses in English so that the 

^ The plan prevailing now in Baltimore, Worcester, and other cities. 



338 Educational Administration 

pupil going to high school would have more direct work 
for that purpose, and the child going into industry might 
have the most suitable preparation, along cultural and 
practical lines, that could be arranged. Under these con- 
ditions each course would present opportunities for special 
adaptation, with due consideration of vocational needs. 

In adapting the overloaded course to varying group 
needs, perhaps it will be shown that other considerations 
should ultimately have some weight. For certain types of 
pupils it is conceivable that the demands in arithmetic 
might be reduced ; for others, the more extended phases of 
nature study. But at present it is not in evidence that 
grounds for extensive differentiation below the sixth grade 
exist. From there on it can relate itself effectively with 
departmental teaching. 

Many other problems, of course, arise in the administration 
of the course of study. The better training of teachers and 
the presence of trained supervisors may be a means of 
relieving the congested course, and of greatly increasing 
efficiency of output. The problem of length of day is a 
serious one : in view of the development of objective stud- 
ies and the inclusion of physical training as a feature of 
school life, should not the day be prolonged rather than 
shortened, and means other than the shortened day adopted 
to preserve the physical well-being of teachers .■* 

The most fundamental defect at present found is in the 
inability of the educator to measure actual educational out- 
put. What is the relative effectiveness of different arrange- 
ments of courses, or methods of administration } Few units 
of measurement exist, and even these are as yet badly used. 
But the final test of the economy and effectiveness of a 
course of study must be expressed in terms of output, pu- 
pils educated to this degree or that, and for measures of 
this we must wait on the development of educational 
science. 



The Elementary Course of Study 339 



REFERENCES 

Addams, Jane. Foreign Born Children in the Primary Grades, Proc. 
N. E. A. 1897:104. — Boone, R. C. Standard Course of Study for 
Elementary Schools, Proc. N. E. A. 1901:303. — Brown, E. E. What 
are the Essentials in Subjects in the Elementary School Course ? Proc. 
N. E. A. 1907 : 227. — Brumbaugh, M. G. Eliminations and Modifications 
in the Course of Study, Proc. N. E. A. 1906: 108. — Bryan, W. L. Ex- 
cessive Expansion in the Course of Study, Proc. N. E. A. 1905 : 482. — 
Cooley, Alice W. The Problem of the Grades, Proc. N. E. A. 1900 : 137. — 
Crosswell, T. R. Courses of Study in the Elementary Schools of the United 
States, Ped. Seni. 4 : 294. — De Garmo, C. Most Pressing Problems of 
the Elementary Course of Study, Herbart Society Year Book 1895, 1:3. — 
Dewey, John. The Psychological Aspect of the School Curriculum, Ed. Rev. 
13 • 356- — Dewey, John. The Situation as regards the Course of Study, 
Ed. Rev. 22 : 26 ; also in Proc. N. E. A. 1901 : 332. — Dewey, John. The 
Child and the Curriculum. Chicago. — Dewey, John. Are the Schools doing 
what the People want them to do ? Ed. Rev. 21 : 459. — Eliot, C. W. The 
Unity of Educational Reform, Ed. Rev. 8 : 209. — Eliot, C. W. Can School 
Programmes be shortened and Enriched ? U. S. Bur. of Ed., Circ. 
of Inf. 1888: no. 6. — Elson, W. H. The Superintendent's Influence 
on the Course of Study, Proc. N. E. A. 1904: 188. — Fall, D. Improve- 
ments in the Course of Study, Proc. N. E. A. 1904: 316. — Gordy. W. F. 
The New Subjects of Study : are they Fads ? Ed. Rev. 29 : 532. — 
Graves, Frank P. Enrichment of the Public School Curriculum, Ed. 25 : 
387. — Hall, G. S. Some Social Aspects of Education, Ed. Rev. 23 : 433. 

— Hanus, P. H. Attempted Improvements in the Course of Study, Ed. 
Rev. 12:435. — Hanus, P. H. Obstacles to Educational Progress, Proc. 
N. E. A. 1902 : 157. — Hartwell, C. S. Economy in Education, Ed. Rev. 
30: 159. — Harris, W. T. How the School strengthens the Individuality 
of the Pupil, Ed. Rev. 24 : 228. — Hester, W. A. Modernizing the Course 
of Study, Proc. N. E. A. 1902:233. — Jackman, W. S. The School 
Grade a Fiction, Ed. Rev. 15:456. — Kirk, J. R. Should the School 
furnish Better Training for the Non-average Child ? Proc. N. E. A. 1907 : 
221. — McMurry, C. Course of Study for Eight Grades. New York, 1906. 

— McMurry, F. M. What Omissions are Desirable in the Present Course 
of Study ? Proc. N. E. A. 1904 : 194. McMurry, F. M. The Relation be- 
tween Elementary and High School, Ed. 26: 253. — Maxwell, W. H. The 
Grammar School Curriculum, Ed. Rev. 3:472. — Mead, E. D. Adjust- 
ment of Education to Contemporary Needs, Ed. Rev. 19 : 472. — Mott, 
T. A. A State Curriculum for Indiana, Ed. 25 : 396. — Parker, Francis W. 
Enrichment of Rural School Courses, Rep. of Com. of Twelve of Nat. Ed. 
Assn. — Payne, Bruce R. PubHc Elementary School Curricula. New York, 
1905. — Peterson, H. A. Classification in Elementary School Curriculum, 
Ed. 24: I. — Prince, J. T. School Administration (Appendix G). Syra- 



340 Educational Administration 

cuse, igo6. — Rice, J. M. The Essentials in Elementary Education, 
Forum, 22 : 538. — Sabin, H. Course of Instruction for Rural Schools, 
with Groups of Studies, Proc. N. E. A. 1897 : 546. — Search, P. W. Ideal 
School (Ch. VII). NewYork, 1901. — Seerley, H. H. The Public School 
Curriculum, Ed. Rev. 27:179. — Soldan, F. L. Shortening the Period 
of Elementary Schooling, Ed. Rev. 25:168. — Webster, W. C. Recent 
Centralizing Tendencies in State Educational Administration. New York, 
1897. — Winterburn, Rosa V. Methods in Teaching. New York, 1907. — 
White, E. E. School Management. New York, 1894. — White, E. E. 
(See his report in Report of N. E. A. Com. of Twelve.) — Young, Ella F. 
Isolation in the School. Chicago, 1900. See also various numbers of 
Teachers College Record (Columbia Univ., New York) and Elementary 
Teacher (Chicago Univ., Chicago) for courses, articles, etc. 



CHAPTER XIX 

Grading and Promotion 

Number of Pupils per Teacher. — It is a fundamental con- 
dition of public school administration that children shall be 
taught in groups. This is an economic necessity, and the 
average size of the group under each teacher will vary with 
the resources which the community can give for education, 
the large or small compensation of the instructors, and other 
matters which require outlay of money. In poor communities 
the number of children assigned to each teacher must be large 
or she must be very poorly paid. Formerly it was not unusual 
to find seventy-five or eighty pupils taught by one instructor, 
and this condition still prevails in European countries where 
the money for education is not abundant. If the limit of 
expenditure has been reached, the number of pupils per 
teacher can be reduced only by lowering the salaries. In 
the elementary schools of the United States it has come to be 
felt that if the number of children assigned to a teacher is in 
excess of forty, the work must suffer. From thirty-five to 
fifty, then, constitutes a normal group of children, except 
where rural schools are found. 

Reduced Classes. — In some cases this number is consider- 
ably reduced. Children who are mentally deficient require 
much more individual attention ; hence where special classes 
of these are segregated, the teacher is not expected to have 
more than fifteen to twenty-five. Similarly in the case of 
classes of pupils organized for purposes of special study, or 
because they have presented disciplinary difficulties — the 
number must be considerably smaller than in the normal 
class. Often groups in secondary studies are organized with 
smaller numbers than in the elementary schools. It is found 
that laboratory, shop, and domestic education classes must 
have a lesser number than forty for effective teaching ; in 

341 



342 Educational Administration 

fact it is generally insisted that a group of half the ordinary 
size is requisite for these special lines of work. 

Grades. — Within the large group of pupils under any one 
teacher it has been the aim of modern educational practice 
to secure homogeneity either in the entire class or within two 
or more divisions of it. These groups constitute the grades, 
and the system of adjustment of pupils to these grades is 
called the graded system. Its object is to have within the 
grade or group the minimum of individual differences among 
members, to the end that the largest possible number may be 
economically taught. The existence of the graded system 
presupposes a carefully planned course of study, advancing 
from stage to stage either in difficulty of work or in the logi- 
cal sequence of subject-matter. The course of study is so 
planned that the average or typical pupil, attending school 
regularly, should complete its various stages successively, 
and it is intended, under the graded system, to have as many 
as possible of children of like capacity grouped together for 
this purpose. 

Homogeneousness of the Group is the essence of the graded 
system. But there are several kinds of homogeneity that 
might be considered. European practice, unlike American, 
aims to group boys together and girls together, rather than 
in mixed classes. Again, pupils might be grouped with 
reference to equal ages, but this basis of group formation 
is not practised in American schools. It is possible that 
children vary considerably in their ability to make a given 
rate of progress through the course of study, but in only a 
few special forms of grading is this recognized as a form of 
homogeneity to be observed. In the upper grades where 
physical changes are rapid, grading might to some extent be 
based on stage of physical growth reached, as pre-pubescent 
or post-pubescent. The one basis of classification, however, 
with which the graded system deals is that based either on 
the stage of intellectual advancement reached as measured 
in the course of study, or what is nearly allied to that, the 
ability of the pupil to do the next work presented by the 
course. The class thus formed contains boys and girls, and 



Grading and Promotion 343 

pupils who are below the average age for this grade as well 
as those who may be above it. So long as the group is truly 
homogeneous by this standard and with reference to the 
course of study, it is probable that teaching can be carried 
on most effectively. The teacher gives directions to forty 
or more children (or a lesser number if two classes or 
divisions of the grade, at different stages of advancement 
are found in the room), all of whom have the same kind and 
amount of knowledge and skill back of them and all of whom 
have the same need of learning the things just before them. 
The difficulties of one will be largely the difficulties of all. 
The same lessons can be assigned to all, and the same explana- 
tions given with least waste of effort. Duplication of work 
is avoided, and month by month the pupils proceed abreast 
in their educational march. 

Merits and Demerits. — The merits of the graded system 
are found in its great economy of time and energy, at least 
under present conditions of pedagogical method. Its evils 
lie in the fact that it may not be a perfect means of adjust- 
ment for each individual ; for even if the group were per- 
fectly homogeneous at the start, various conditions of physical 
infirmity, irregular attendance, inability to make the average 
rate of progress, and others, would soon tend to disturb the 
homogeneity of the group. A considerable number of pupils 
in any grade will be found to be badly adjusted, and their 
lack of adjustment will grow with their continuance in the 
grade. The graded system becomes mechanical in propor- 
tion as it makes difficult the finding of their proper educa- 
tional places for those who do not continue to fit the group 
in which they started. 

Reclassification. — From its beginnings, of course, the 
graded system permitted at least one form of readjustment 
for the individual pupil. At the end of a stated period — 
half year or year — a formal reclassification of pupils takes 
place, sometimes called promotion. The pupils who have 
finished the term of work fairly well are moved into the next 
stage, while those who have failed to keep pace are dropped 
back to repeat the work of the grade. Occasionally, too, the 



344 Educational Administration 

exceptionally capable pupil is allowed to " skip " a grade, 
which is something more than promotion in the ordinary- 
sense, and must involve some violent readjustments in view 
of the fact that a body of intervening work in the course of 
study must be omitted, or made up outside of regular class 
work. All students of education agree that the crude form 
of readjustment for the individual pupil, which takes place by 
simply putting him into the grade below, is harsh or wasteful, 
especially if the period between grades or classes is a year, 
or other long interval. In cities where large schools are 
found, it is common to have the interval between classes a 
half year ; and various superintendents have even made the 
interval still less in their efforts to diminish the waste of time 
and energy for the class of pupils who fail of promotion. 
But, unless teachers are given more than two sections, the 
accomplishment of a plan of quarterly promotions is feasible 
only in very large schools. Quarterly promotion, with re- 
adjustments at those intervals, is usually entirely feasible in 
schools having twenty-four rooms or more. If, as in a few 
cities, children above the sixth grade attend separate schools 
from those below, then quarterly promotion is practicable in 
buildings of sixteen rooms. It is also practicable in smaller 
schools, if it is found by experiment that a teacher can profit- 
ably handle more than two sections within the schoolroom. 

Differences in Ability to make Progress. — But even under 
the conditions of frequent promotion it is found that in the 
case of many individuals the adjustment is only partial. The 
fundamental difficulty is found in the fact that the homo- 
geneousness that is established under the ordinary system of 
promotion is a homogeneousness of intellectual ability that 
might be described as static, but which takes little account 
of varying abilities in the matter of the rate of progress, or 
dynamic ability. This point might be illustrated by a figure. 
Assume that in a regiment of troops were a considerable 
number who could march fifteen miles a day with moderate 
ease, but for whom a more rapid rate would be disastrous ; 
also a certain number who could quite easily march thirty 
miles per day. If, then, the rate of march is fixed at twenty 



Grading and Promotion 345 

miles a day, which may be the rate for the midmost man in 
ability, or the typical man, it is obvious that those who 
naturally could march faster will fail to make the advance- 
ment they should, while those who can march only fifteen 
miles will either fall by the wayside in the longer march or 
be strained in their efforts. If the exigencies of the case did 
not dictate otherwise, it would be more effective to divide the 
regiment into three groups, for each of which a rate could 
be devised that would produce more effective results. 

Cambridge Plan. — Many educators believe that what is 
here figuratively described holds true of children as they are 
found in our schools. It is contended that owing to inherent 
or other causes, some are able to make faster progress 
through the course than others, and that in a course of 
study designed to be completed by the average pupil in eight 
years, some pupils should be given opportunity to finish in 
six or seven years, while others should be allowed nine or 
ten. Attempts to provide systems of grading involving the 
possibilities for adjustment here suggested have been made 
in several cities, of which that of Cambridge has received 
most attention. Roughly described, the plan in vogue con- 
templates the separation of the children entering an inter- 
mediate grade into three divisions, each one of which is 
designed to proceed at a different rate through the re- 
mainder of the course. When different divisions are quite 
near to each other, it is possible to transfer a pupil from one 
to the other, if his condition seems to warrant his entering a 
class proceeding at a slower or more rapid rate. At least 
two kinds of flexibility are found in this system which do not 
exist in the old ; the pupil may, if able, proceed rapidly, or if 
necessary, slowly, through the course ; and also, if at differ- 
ent stages of his school career his ability to make progress 
varies, he can move from a slow-going to a fast-going section. 
This is especially important in the case of pupils who have 
had periods of illness, or in the upper grades when a period 
of rapid physical growth or change sets in. It also permits 
some adaptation to pupils who come from poor homes, or 
pupils of low physical condition. 



346 Educational Administration 

The system of grading or promotion just described requires 
large schools, unless teachers handle several classes or sec- 
tions. It would be necessary to divide any one division into 
at least as many grades as years were required to finish the 
course, in order to provide for one entering class each year. 
Under these circumstances, assuming all elementary pupils in 
one building, it should be a feasible system in a twelve-room 
building, each teacher having two sections. 

Flexible Grading. — The above scheme is systematic 
throughout. In other places schemes of flexible grading have 
been adopted which, while fully recognizing the varying ca- 
pacities of pupils in the matter of rate of speed through the 
course, do not attempt to systematically arrange for each di- 
vision, but rather aim to provide for contingencies as they 
arise. Groups are formed, but the membership of these may 
be changed when experience demonstrates that a better 
classification is desirable. Furthermore, the important fact 
is recognized that in some studies or pursuits more minute 
classification is desirable than in others. There are " essential 
studies," so called, in which divisions may be small ; but in 
other subjects several sections may be grouped together. 
Large sections are divided when it is apparent that smaller 
groups, taking different subject-matter or moving at different 
rates, are desirable. The subdivision of groups is apparently 
limited only by the capacity of the teacher to deal with a 
number of sections. The system thus developed is difficult to 
describe, because in some respects it is fluent and changing, 
according to the conditions which arise. In one city, for ex- 
ample, the superintendent notes that after an epidemic many 
new groups were formed to accommodate those pupils who had 
lost considerable time. The efficacy of the system depends 
on the constant watchfulness of superintendent and principals, 
with the cooperation of teachers. Its limitations, theoreti- 
cally, are not found in its failures to make adaptations for the 
pupils on the intellectual side, but in its disturbance of social 
groups in the school, the prevention of the formation of en- 
during classes, and in its demoralizing effect on the continuity 
of the teachers' work. But those who have tried the system 



Grading and Promotion 347 

think little of these limitations, while they feel that its ad- 
vantages are very great in providing for the largest possible 
number of pupils the place in the course and the character of 
work best adapted to them. 

By var3dng the Quantity of work within a given grade at- 
tempts are sometimes made to make adjustments to individual 
capacity. A certain class, for example, may be divided into 
two sections, the one composed of the more capable and the 
other of the less capable pupils. In both sections the aim 
will be to complete the assigned portion of the course in the 
same time ; but the brighter pupils will be given a fuller con- 
tent of study and practice than the other, the latter being 
confined, as it were, to the more necessary features of the 
course. Both sections will take the same time, but the more 
able one will have received in any given topic a fuller experi- 
ence, more opportunities for outside and supplementary study, 
etc. Where the course of study provides a certain minimum 
of work which must be common to all pupils, with additions to 
be taken by those having unusual time or ability, the possible 
adjustments that can be made on this basis are consider- 
able. Such a plan should make possible the regular promo- 
tion of many pupils of mediocre ability or of those attending 
irregularly, who, if held to the usual requirements, could not 
go on, 

Batavia System. — Another device designed to introduce 
flexibility into the graded system is found where the time of 
the teacher is systematically divided, so that part shall be 
given to class-work, involving the entire group, and part to 
individual work. This plan, sometimes called the Batavia 
system, does not so much make provision for varying rates of 
progress on the part of different pupils as that it provides dif- 
ferent amounts of teaching according to the capacity or inca- 
pacity of the pupil. The assumption is that with more 
individual teaching and assistance, the weak pupil can, at least 
in essential subjects, be made to keep pace with others who 
make progress chiefly on the basis of class-work. The work 
of the teacher is partly class-work, but also she is required to 
give a definite portion of her efforts to systematic instruction 



34^ Educational Administration 

of individuals especially needing it. Under some conditions, 
with specially designed schoolrooms accommodating seventy 
or eighty pupils, it is contemplated that two teachers should 
work in the one room, one responsible for the class instruction 
and the other devoting herself to the instruction of individ- 
uals. 

Individual Teaching. — Finally it may be noted that from 
time to time it has seemed to educators feasible to relinquish 
the class system largely and to accomplish much teaching sim- 
ply through the work of the teacher with individuals. Under 
the individual system it is contemplated that each pupil shall 
proceed at the rate most natural and effective to him, merely 
calling on the teacher for aid when insuperable difficulties 
present themselves. Of course in many rural schools, where 
there may be but one or two pupils in each class, especially 
of older pupils, it can be seen that the teaching is of necessity 
individual. Furthermore, in ungraded classes, serving as 
adjuncts to the ordinary classes in city schools, much of the 
instruction must be on an individual basis. The success of 
individual teaching depends largely on the particular subject 
under consideration, and the perfection of the text-books and 
other aids which the pupils must use. It is probable that in 
much of American education, especially where the teacher 
has all her pupils in one class, teaching and recitation become 
excessive, and study and work within the school are too little 
developed. It is probable that with good text-books, and 
syllabi prepared which would map out in detail the work of 
the pupil and give him an abundance of explanation, the 
older ones at any rate could proceed much more largely on 
the individual basis than is the case at the present time. 

On the other hand, it may be questioned whether the so- 
called individual method will succeed with groups the size of 
those which must be kept under the teacher at the present 
time. Individual teaching, for example, might be quite 
practicable if the teacher had but twenty pupils, whereas with 
forty it becomes impracticable. In the latter case it may 
prove always necessary to keep the pupils carefully abreast 
in their studies to the end that explanations and recitations 



Grading and Promotion 349 

may be kept on a basis of combined economy and effective- 
ness. 

Ungraded Classes. — Another device for mitigating the evils 
of the graded system is found in the establishment of un- 
graded or special classes, to be more fully described in Chap- 
ters XXI and XXII. In effect this amounts to separation 
from the regular classes of those individuals who harmonize 
least in their attainments and capacity for work with the 
regularly established classes. These ungraded classes must 
be small, must be in charge of exceptionally capable teachers, 
and in them the teaching must to a considerable extent be 
individual. Into these classes are placed the pupils who, 
owing to physical or mental defects, cannot keep pace with 
the ordinary grade of work; pupils who are ahead of their 
grade, and who may with some coaching be advanced a grade 
beyond; bright pupils who have lost something of the course 
through illness or absence; and sometimes pupils who make 
difficulties of management — to the end that in smaller classes 
and under closer teaching they may be induced to take hold 
of their work more seriously. The effect of the removal of 
these members from the regular class is to render it more 
homogeneous and more conformable to the ideals of class 
organization. The two difficulties that arise with regard to 
the special class are its expense, and the unfortunate neces- 
sity of congregating within it pupils of widely varying ca- 
pacities and dispositions.^ 

Tests for Promotion. — Under the " graded system there is 
annually or semi-annually a time of reclassification, and all 

^ In the secondary school the matter of promotion now rests on a different 
basis from that in the elementary school. The student pursues but few subjects, 
each of these having a definite and well-ordered content. It therefore becomes 
administratively possible to advance him from one grade to another in individual 
subjects, and this system has in the more progressive schools replaced the plan 
of keeping a student in a given year or grade until he has passed in all subjects. 
This " promotion by subject " has been advocated for the elementary school, and 
would seem to be inherently a valuable means of making adjustments to individual 
capacity; but the administrative difficulties in the way of having elementary 
pupils recite in different classes seem insuperable under present school con- 
ditions. With the development of departmental work in the upper grades it is 
possible that the principal could be recognized to some extent, especially in the 
case of formal subjects like grammar and arithmetic. 



350 



Educational Administration 



pupils who are deemed worthy of continuing their work in 
unbroken order are said to be promoted. It has become 
customary to utilize the desire for promotion as an incentive 
for better work on the part of the pupils. Associated with 
failure of promotion is disgrace and a conviction of lost time 
and effort. Promotion is associated with consciousness of 
successful performance. Hence the tests which are applied 
to determine fitness for promotion come to have much sig- 
nificance in the careers of school children as incentives to 
effort. Naturally the teacher always utilizes the record of 
the day's work in some measure as a stimulus. But at times, 
and especially in the upper grades, much has been made of 
examinations for promotion. Frequently machinery has 
been devised whereby these should be given by superintend- 
ents or others not directly associated with the teaching of 
the child. Under these conditions both teachers and pupils 
have had strong incentives for doing the work which will 
make the best showing in the examinations. Naturally it 
has been necessary to make them written rather than oral, 
owing to economic and other considerations. 

The Examination System of determining fitness for promo- 
tion has in recent years fallen somewhat into discredit. It has 
been found that the pressure brought to bear upon the pupil 
has not been all educative. It has stimulated some pupils, 
but failed to stimulate others ; and those stimulated were the 
pupils least in need of such additional compulsion. The 
examination itself has often degenerated into an instrument 
of torture. Its results have not always been even fairly 
satisfactory tests of real ability to advance into higher grade 
work, but rather tests mainly of ready wits and retentive 
memories. 

Promotion by Teacher. — Consequently the development of 
other methods of determining fitness for promotion have come 
into vogue. Responsibility now commonly devolves almost 
entirely upon the teacher, acting in consultation with the 
principal, the former being free to give such tests as she 
finds wise. Sometimes the teacher is given entire freedom 
in promoting a given fraction, say two-thirds of the class. 



Grading and Promotion 351 

the remaining third having to submit to an examination. 
Again, the teacher designates for promotion all about whom 
she is certain, leaving a residue whom the principal examines, 
sometimes in conjunction with the teacher of the grade 
above. Another scheme found in some communities, espe- 
cially where examinations are conducted by a county board, 
is to have a system of accredited teachers who have entire 
liberty in the matter of promotion, and other teachers whose 
pupils must submit to examination. The accredited teachers 
are those who have been long enough in the school system 
to have their work well known ; who have developed excel- 
lent teaching capacity ; and whose judgment in promotion 
is sound, as indicated by the success of their pupils in the 
grades above. The accrediting of teachers is, of course, a 
delicate matter, but under competent supervision ought not 
to offer great difficulties. The probabilities are, that with 
the development of more flexible systems of grading, teachers 
will have to give special study to the matter of promotion, 
and that supervision also will have to be directed more to 
this matter than is now the case. It can certainly be said 
that in view of our present knowledge of the injuriousness 
and inadequacy of the system of written examinations, it will 
hardly be possible for any well-organized school system to 
rely solely upon them for promotion. 

Classification in Subject-matter. — The first problem of 
grading and promotion has reference to the classification which 
should be made within each subject in the curriculum. In 
the introductory stages of the discussion of elastic systems of 
grading it has too often been unjustifiably assumed that all 
of the subjects of the school programme stood on the same 
footing — that each subject should be subdivided into as 
many parts for grade study as any other. But this has not 
been ascertained. We know, for example, that arithmetic 
and history study are subjects having ascending stages, 
which can be used for classification, and that any given stage 
can only be taken in its order. On the other hand, is it 
equally as desirable that similar stages should be recognized 
in science study, drawing, the study of literature, and moral 



352 Educational Administration 

instruction ? If not, then is it not possible to allow pupils 
to be divided into smaller groups for the purpose of 
studying arithmetic, grammar, and music, but in larger 
groups for geography, literature, science, and moral instruc- 
tion ? 

Number of Sections in Room. — The second problem has 
reference to the number of sections within the schoolroom 
which it is profitable for the teacher to handle. In many 
city systems each elementary school teacher has only one 
section, or grade, which is not subdivided for any purpose. 
The recitation periods, under these circumstances, can be 
long, and when the class is studying, it can be entirely under 
the observation of the teacher. On the other hand, in rural 
schools, a teacher often has six or more grades, or sections, 
separate in most of their studies. Under these circumstances 
the teacher must have many recitations with short periods, 
and during the recitation the major portion of her pupils will 
be engaged in study. Between these two extreme cases 
we find a variety of practices. Commonly, city teachers 
have one grade, but a few divide it into two sections for 
some kinds of instruction. Occasionally they have two dif- 
ferent grades, or subdivisions of one grade pursuing work at 
different stages ; or again teachers are required to have three 
sections in the single room. There must be somewhere a 
medium of economy, determined partly by the factors which 
make for effective teaching and learning, such as length of 
recitation, amount of study time within school, strain upon 
teacher of supervising study and conducting recitation at the 
same time, advantage to pupils of having carried on in their 
hearing recitations of pupils slightly ahead or behind them- 
selves, and the like. Many arguments are possible against 
the rural school necessity of having five to eight sections all 
studying or reciting at once. On the other hand, it is prob- 
ably harmful to pupils to have only one very large section, 
alternately studying or reciting in the room at the same 
time. It is probable that each teacher should have at least 
two sections always in the room, the one reciting, the other 
studying. 



Grading and Promotion 353 

Basis of Flexible Grading. — In considering schemes of flex- 
ible grading it is obvious that light must come from the 
solution of these two problems. For example, it might be 
suggested that an ideal schoolroom would be that having 
forty children not unlike in age and attainments, all of whom 
would constitute but one class in singing and informal 
music study, and in the study of literature, natural science, 
penmanship, and drawing. But this large group would be 
divided into two groups in history, and in geography; into 
four groups in language or grammar study ; and into even as 
many as five groups for arithmetic and the mechanics of read- 
ing. The rate of progress in essential subjects might be 
quite different in the different sections, leading to readjust- 
ments possibly into other classes at the close of the regular 
term of promotion. For example, in the mechanics of reading 
the object of the division of pupils into five sections in the 
lower grades would be to make as many readjustments as 
possible for varying capacities in this field, which is one of 
the critical studies in the first three grades. But in higher 
grades it might still be desirable to preserve five divisions, 
not because pupils now must make different rates of progress, 
but simply because the division into sections affords the most 
convenient means of practice. On the other hand, in studies 
which depend less on logical sequences, or involve less finely 
discriminated stages of ability, two sections or one may be 
managed, provided these can learn most effectively through the 
combined activities of the larger group. 

Essential and Additional Studies. — Another basis of dis- 
tinction to meet the above problem may be found in the differ- 
ences that might be observed between the essential and 
so-called additional studies. The aim of the grading system 
might be to make enough divisions for fairly accurate adjust- 
ment in the more essential studies, but to leave the divisions 
large in the less essential studies. Furthermore, promotion 
should be based primarily on the essential studies, even to the 
extent of allowing a pupil to omit at times, and with sufficient 
excuse, the less essential. This would give opportunities for 
considerable adjustment for those studies which are necessary 

2A 



354 Educational Administration 

to progress up through the grades, while at the same time allow- 
ing children to pursue as well as they might be able the less 
prominent studies. The difficulties in the way of this adjust- 
ment exist in the fact that, while it is actually practised in 
some measure in all schools, it is not agreed as to what are 
the essential studies. Tradition has indicated certain of the 
formal studies as being essential ; but we have yet no measure 
of the quantity or degree of thoroughness in each, which 
might be regarded as constituting its measure of essentialness. 
And what are sometimes thought the non-essential or orna- 
mental studies are being recognized by educators as peculiarly 
essential. The fact is that the pedagogical problems of the 
elementary curriculum are not yet sufficiently clear on a num- 
ber of points involved in the above problems. 

The Separation of Brighter from Slower Pupils is a feature 
of several systems of flexible promotion. However useful 
this may be as producing homogeneity for the time being, its 
ultimate psychological effects are far from being understood. 
Will the groups of less ready pupils tend to become fixed, 
thus drawing lines which will affect the social life of the 
school .'' The advocates of flexible systems think that because 
capable pupils will always be put, for a time at least, in 
groups containing those moving more slowly, social disadvan- 
tages will tend to be corrected. For example, where a class 
is divided into two sections, it is contemplated that these sec- 
tions shall preserve their membership intact throughout the 
course. Only considerable experimentation will demonstrate 
whether this will be the case, or whether the coalescing of 
groups will be carried on sufficiently to offset tendencies' to 
permanent and social separation of bright from slower pupils. 
This problem also arises in the case of that kind of segrega-^ 
tion which does not aim at having pupils make different rates 
of progress through the course, but at giving a brighter section 
richer work in the regular subjects. 

REFERENCES 

Bagley, W. C. Class-room Management. New York, 1907. — Blewett, 
B. System of Grading Pupils in St. Louis, Ed. Rev. 8:387. — Boone, 



Grading and Promotion 355 

Richard G. The Lockstep in the Public Schools, N. E. A. 1903 : 408. — 
Boykin, J. C. Class Intervals in City Public Schools, C. R. 1891 : 981. — 
Buchanan, Elizabeth. The Problem of the Grades, Proc. N. E. A. 1900: 
128. — Burk, C. Y. Promotion of Bright and Slow Pupils, Ed. Rev. 19: 
296. — Cogswell, Francis. The Cambridge Experiment, N. E. A. 1894: 
333. — Dutton. Social Phases of Education. New York, 1901. — Gor- 
don, C. H. Reorganization of the Grammar School and a Rational Sys- 
tem of Grading, Ed. 21 : 16. — Greenwood, Jas. M. Shortening the Time 
in the Elementary School, Ed. Rev. 24 : 384. — Fitzpatrick, Frank. De- 
partmental Teaching in Grammar Schools, Ed. Rev. 7 : 439. — Garber, 
J. P. A Rational System of Classification, Ed. 27 : 288. — Hartwell, Chas. 
S. Economy in Education, Ed. Rev. 30: 159. — Jackman, William S. 
The School Grade a Fiction, Ed. Rev. 15 : 456. — Kilpatrick, V. Depart- 
mental Teaching in Elementary Schools, Ed. Rev. 28 : 468. — Leonard, 
Mary H. School Examinations, Ed. 21:282. — Morse, E. G. C. An- 
other View of Departmental Teaching in Elementary Schools, Ed. Rev. 
31 : 93. — Parker, F. W. Departmental Instruction Wrong in Theory and 
Practice, Ed. Rev. 6 : 342. — Payne, W. H. Elastic Grading, Rep. of Com. 
of Ed. 1899-1900: 1376. — Prince, J. T. Some New England Plans of 
Grading and Promotion, N. E. A. 1898 : 423. — Prince, J. T. Grading and 
Promoting of Pupils, Ed. Rev. 231. — Richman, Julia, A Successful Ex- 
periment in Promoting Pupils, Ed. Rev. 18 : 23. — Russel, E. H. Excep- 
tional Children in Schools, Ed. Rev. 6 : 431. — Search, P. W. Individual 
Teaching, Pueblo Plan, Ed. Rev. 7 : 154 ; 8 : 84. — Search, P. W. The Ideal 
School. New York, 1901. — Shearer, William J. The Grading of Schools. 
New York, H. P. Smith Pub. Co., 2d Ed., 1898. — Soldan, F. L. Short- 
ening the Period of Elementary Schooling, Ed. Rev. 25 : 168. — Thorndike, 
Edw. L. The Elimination of Pupils from School, Bur. of Ed. Bui. 1907, 
no. 4. — Van Sickle, Jas. H. The Denver Plan of Grading and Promo- 
tion, N. E. A. 1898:434. — White, Emerson E. Promotion and Exam- 
inations in Graded Schools, U. S. Bur. of Ed., Circ. of Inf. 1891. — 
Young, Mrs. Ella Y. Grading and Classification, N. E. A. 1893:83; 
Classification and Promotion of Pupils, C. R. 1899:303; Classification 
in Graded Schools, C. R. 1892 : 601 ; Rep. of Com. of Ed. 1904: 1387. 



CHAPTER XX 

The Administration of High Schools 

Unique Features. — The American high school, as the 
typical secondary school, is unlike the European in three 
particulars : (a) Its course begins at the close of the full 
elementary school period, {b) its term is seldom more than 
four years, and {c) the school is coeducational. In all typi- 
cal European secondary schools, the courses are planned to 
begin before the termination of the traditional elementary 
school period ; they are from six to nine years in length ; 
and coeducation is the exception. European and American 
secondary schools are somewhat alike in their curricula, in 
that studies contributing to general culture play the main 
r61e, and in the fact that the content as well as the method 
of teaching is largely determined in response to the de- 
mands of the superior institutions. Flexibility in European 
schools is usually accomplished, not by separate courses, 
but by the establishment of separate schools, each with a 
fairly rigid course (an exception being made as regards the 
English boarding schools, which may have several courses). 
In the typical American high school flexibility is accomplished 
by having two or more courses, sometimes modified by alter- 
native or elective studies, to any one of which the pupil may 
adapt himself. 

Extent of Secondary Education. — American public secon- 
dary education is widespread and rapidly growing in impor- 
tance. In 1905-1906, out of every 100,000 population, 880 
were enrolled in the pubhc high schools, a total enrolment 
for the country of over 740,000. Of this number nearly 58 per 
cent were girls. The number of these schools was 8031, the 
740,000 students being taught by 30,844 teachers, of whom 
over 53 per cent were women. The average number of pupils 

356 



The Administration of High Schools 357 

per teacher was nearly 25, the average number of teachers 
to the school nearly 4, and the average number of pupils per 
school slightly under loo.^ 

Variability. — But there is much variability in the size and 
completeness of equipment. " The secondary schools in the 
country with only one teacher outnumber by a considerable 
figure all those with five teachers or more. Those with only 
one or two teachers outnumber considerably all the rest." ^ 
Over 36 per cent of all high school students are in schools 
having from one to three teachers, and only 31 per cent in 
schools of eleven teachers or more.^ 

City High Schools. — The census of 1900 indicates that 
about one-third of the population of the United States was 
found in cities of over 8000. These contain 790 public high 
schools with an average of about 400 pupils each, with 
one teacher to a trifle less than 30 pupils. The schools 
average almost 14 teachers each. The city high schools 
have over 30 per cent more pupils per teacher than the 
non-urban schools. 

Specialization of Teaching. — The departmental system of 
teaching prevails almost universally in these high schools ; 
that is, each teacher is a specialist teaching one or more 
subjects to all the pupils who take that subject, or so many 



1 Report of Commissioner of Education, 1906 et seq, 

2 Thorndike, " A Neglected Aspect of the American High School," Ed. Rev. 

33 : 245- 

8 Table showing the Approximate Proportions of the Public High 

School Enrolment of the United States in Schools of from i to 

no Teachers. 

Number of Students 

Teachers Enrolled 

In schools of 1-3 teachers are 36.6 per cent of all students enrolled 
In schools of 4-6 teachers are 22.1 per cent of all students enrolled 
In schools of 7-10 teachers are 9.1 per cent of all students enrolled 
In schools of i-io teachers are 68.6 per cent of all students enrolled 
In schools of 11-20 teachers are 13.5 per cent of all students enrolled 
In schools of 2I-I0I teachers are 17.8 per cent of all students enrolled 

— (Abridged from Thorndike, Ed, Rev. t,"^ : 254.) 



358 Educational Administration 

classes as his time permits. The staple secondary school 
subjects are, somewhat in the order of general importance : 
mathematics (algebra and geometry) ; English (literature, 
composition, and rhetoric) ; Latin ; History ; French and Ger- 
man ; physiology, physics, chemistry, and physical geography. 
Greek, civics, trigonometry, biology, astronomy, psychology, 
commercial subjects, manual training, domestic arts, are 
found occasionally. In some states drawing is a strong 
feature, but in others it is hardly found. Systematic in- 
struction in music is uncommon, but singing and chorus 
work in opening exercises and sometimes for an hour a week 
is frequent. 

Uniformity of Programme. — Prior to the issuance of the 
Report of the Committee of Ten the high schools differed 
widely in extent and character of programme. The curricula of 
even the small ones contained many subjects, but these were 
arranged in short courses, sometimes only twelve weeks in 
length, or the pupils carried alternative subjects, reciting in 
each two or three times a week. The effect of the Report 
was to greatly unify high school work in nearly all the 
states. The number of subjects to be carried by the in- 
dividual pupil was reduced until now but four are usually 
studied seriously at any one time. Four or five recitations 
per day of from forty-five to fifty minutes each has become 
the rule. Few subjects are now taken for less than a full 
year. Since nearly all the high school courses are largely 
affected by college admission requirements, and it was from 
the colleges that the demand came for the simplification and 
unification produced by the Report of the Committee of Ten, 
it is of interest to note that the colleges tend to fix the above 
form of programme, by putting entrance requirements in the 
form of fifteen or sixteen points, each point being supposed 
to represent a study pursued for one year with at least four 
recitations per week. This programme, which has become a 
fixed feature in American high schools, is widely at variance 
with that prevailing in the secondary schools of England and 
Germany ; in these countries it is customary for the secondary 
school pupil to carry from seven to ten subjects simultane- 



The Administration of High Schools 359 

ously, having from two to five recitations weekly in each, and 
carrying each subject for a series of years. 

Attendance. — With the exception of some commercial 
studies, almost all the work in the high schools is planned 
for students who take the entire course, which in most of 
the states, and excepting only small, one-teacher high schools, 
is four years. A very large number of the students, however, 
who enter stay only one or two years. It is estimated that 
of the total enrolment in public high schools, 43 per cent 
is in the first year, 26 per cent in the second year, 18 per 
cent in the third year, and 13 per cent in the fourth year.^ 
Over a series of years it is found that the number of graduates 
from all public high schools has been from 11 to 12 
per cent of the total enrolment. This varies among the 
states from 6 to 16 per cent, being highest in the North 
Central division. Since the total attendance at high 
schools is increasing some 5 or 6 per cent a year, the 
percentage of graduates compared with the total enrolment 
as given above tends to exaggerate the apparent falling off 
in attendance. But it is a well-recognized fact that of all 
pupils who begin high school work less than one-third 
ordinarily graduate. 

Six Years' High School Course. — The relation of American 
secondary to elementary education has been long a source 
of considerable dissatisfaction. It is felt by most educators 
that the distinctively secondary school studies should begin 
earlier than is now the case, as is universally the practice 
in European countries. But the democratic tendencies of 
America have opposed the formation of school courses 
parallel to those of the elementary school, for more favored 
pupils. Sometimes the attempt has been made to have 
all pupils about twelve years of age take up distinctively 
secondary studies, but this has proven most unpopular, 
since for most of the children these studies are valueless. 
As long as it is insisted that the elementary school programme 
must be uniform for all children it is obviously impossible 
that foreign languages, algebra and geometry, and other 

^ Report of Commissioner of Education, 1905 : 822. 



360 Educational Administration 

secondary school subjects should be studied. And yet 
educators who are most in contact with children who take 
a secondary and college education feel that for them there 
has been a serious loss of time, especially in the last two 
years of the elementary course. It has often been suggested 
that high schools should lengthen their courses to six years, 
but so far the plan has not been made operative in the 
secondary schools. 

Obviously, the solution of the problem rests upon the 
disposition to differentiate the work of the upper grades 
of the elementary school. As was shown in the chapter 
on elementary course of study (p. 327) there is no inherent 
reason why alternative courses should not be offered in 
the seventh and eighth grades. Equality of opportunity, 
which is the demand of democracy, does not mean equality 
of work, provided always alternative courses are kept equally 
open to all kinds of children who can pursue the studies with 
profit. Once grant the practicability of alternative courses, 
there is no reason why one of these courses should not 
contain one or more foreign languages, algebra instead of 
arithmetic, etc., and be essentially secondary in character. 
Even though these classes were held in the elementary 
school building, it would be possible to have the work 
departmental in character and carried on by properly qualified 
secondary school teachers. The course not preparatory for 
high school would naturally be organized primarily for those 
children who contemplated leaving school at or about fourteen 
years of age. A plan of reorganization of this kind can 
usually be effected with very slight change in present 
machinery of administration and will accomplish all desired 
objects of the six years' high school course. 



I. EDUCATIONAL AIMS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 

With the increased attendance in public high schools, 
with the changing demands of industrial and civic life, 



The Administration of High Schools 361 

and with widening knowledge of the psychology of learning, 
it has been inevitable that the aims of secondary education 
should materially change. The present is still a period 
of uncertainty and transition. Within recent years, and 
especially as the attendance at secondary schools has come 
more and more from the ranks of industrial and agricultural 
workers, to whom a complete high school course, followed 
by a college career, is impossible, the demand has risen for 
more opportunities for vocational training in the period 
commonly allotted to secondary education. The usefulness 
of many of the studies which have long occupied a prominent 
place in secondary education has been questioned. His- 
torically, the following factors have largely determined the 
secondary school curriculum : — 

a. Influences of the College. — The most prominent has 
been the college. A limited number of the graduates of 
the high schools seek admission to college, and the latter 
has always tended to indicate a series of specific requirements 
which its entrants should meet. It has been able to set 
educational standards much more definite and determinable 
than could be found in any other quarter, and it has always 
been a matter of concern to the high school that its graduates 
should be able to meet these on an equality with students 
coming from purely preparatory institutions. Hence, the 
college has been able very largely to determine the extent, 
variety, and quality of the high school curriculum, except in 
the purely commercial and manual work. Relative educational 
values, except as they affect the student's capacity for college 
or professional work, have been peculiarly obscured by this 
form of control. Another factor has also added to the 
confusion. It has always been obvious that the graduates 
of high schools were numerous among the successful men in 
the world of affairs, and hasty reasoning has tended to 
ascribe their success in part to their secondary education. 
It has been forgotten or unrecognized that the high school 
is very selective in its action, and that it continually tends to 
drop those who have inferior capacity. The consequence 
is that graduates of the high school, altogether apart from 



362 Educational Administration 

the effects of their education, represent a highly selected 
class, on the basis of natural ability, capacity for application, 
and cultural influences in the home environment. 

b. Theory of Mental Discipline. — Another influence has 
been the persistent and widespread theory of mental dis- 
cipline. According to this belief there are certain studies 
which are peculiarly fitted to train the mind to greater power, 
even though these have little practical value in themselves, 
in either a vocational way, or in giving a stock of cultural 
ideas and appreciations. Latin and mathematics occupy 
prominent places in all secondary school curricula because of 
a general belief in their value as agents of mental training. 
This is illustrated by the fact that in almost all high schools 
mathematics is a prescribed study for girls as well as boys, 
although the former will very rarely follow the subject up 
and apply it either to cultural or vocational stages. This 
theory has also affected the character of the teaching of 
other subjects not originally introduced for disciplinary pur- 
poses. Modern languages, science, and even history have 
been modified along lines supposed to be suited to mental 
training. 

c. General Culture as an Aim. — The third influence has 
been the desire to make of the high school an institution of 
general culture and information. Many of the studies at the 
time of their introduction were expected to minister to this 
end ; in fact, if we trace back to the Renaissance the study 
of the classics, the same thing might be said of them. But 
the introduction of the various sciences, of English literature, 
of history, and of civics has been primarily dictated by con- 
siderations of general culture, even though these subjects 
have subsequently become essentially instruments of mental 
discipline. Often it has happened that a study introduced 
for cultural purposes has ceased to function in that way when 
its disciplinary aspect has been emphasized in response to 
the demands of the colleges. 

Restrictions on Aims. — The ascendency of the two former 
aims in the minds of secondary school teachers (preparation 
for college, and mental training) has largely prevented the 



The Administration of High Schools 363 

adjustment of the high school to the needs of the large major- 
ity of students who do not complete the full course. But it 
has been tacitly held that, even for those who stay but one or 
two years in the high school, the course as originally planned 
is at least as good as any other in that it provides a year or 
two of sharp mental drill. Under these conditions, of course, 
the value of the content of the course is minimized. In the 
Report of the Committee of Ten expression was more than 
once given to the theory that it mattered little what the high 
school student studied, so long as he studied it with a high 
degree of effort and with clear thinking, since thus he would 
get the requisite mental training either for further study or 
for participation in practical life. 

The foregoing aims, then, have hitherto prevailed in deter- 
mining the theory of American secondary education. The 
college has made certain demands for specific power and 
knowledge and these the secondary schools have sought to 
provide. The broader aim has been to secure mental train- 
ing, and the behef has been that the character of the course 
has contributed to this, whether the student pursued it for a 
long or for a short time. The original cultural aims have 
been subordinated. But different aims have asserted them- 
selves to some extent in recent years. The commercial depart- 
ments of high schools have been characterized mainly by a 
vocational purpose. Although many of the manual training 
secondary schools are primarily designed to fit for higher 
technical or other institutions, some of them have accepted a 
vocational aim within reach of their own resources. In a 
theoretical way many educators have set the civic or social 
aim as a large one for the high schools, but without suggest- 
ing means for its realization, beyond a brief course in civics. 
From many quarters has come the demand that the secondary 
schools should do more to fit girls for domestic life and in 
smaller high schools to fit boys for the more scientific agri- 
cultural pursuits. From time to time, also, renewed attempts 
have been made to insist that cultural aims should actually 
be realized in the high school itself. Music, art, modern lit- 
erature, general science, have been urged as appropriate 



364 Educational Administration 

ends of educational effort in this direction, but on the whole 
such demands are yet ineffective. 

Problem of Educational Values. — It will be seen that there 
are a number of problems of educational values, and only in 
the light of some solution of, or hypothesis regarding, these 
problems is it feasible to discuss educational aims and the 
conditions which should govern in the formulation of cur- 
ricula. Among these problems are : — 

a. Mental Discipline. — Are there certain studies, practices, 
and pursuits which are peculiarly fitted to give mental power 
of a general character ? Traditionally, the study of classics 
and mathematics have long been defended on the above 
grounds. The rigid and quantitative study of some sciences 
may likewise be so supported. Disciplinary methods of 
treatment have also greatly affected the teaching of history 
and English literature. 

Psychological studies at present give no satisfactory an- 
swer to the above questions, though they do tend to unsettle 
many dogmas which had come to be accepted. The whole 
question has been complicated by the undoubtedly selective 
effect of the high school. Only the students naturally most 
capable enter the high school, and of these only the best, as 
a rule, graduate. Furthermore, the more classical subjects of 
the programme have until very recently had the best teachers, 
and have attracted superior students. These, therefore, have 
made the best showing, and the studies pursued have been 
given credit. It may be said that many psychological inves- 
tigations have shown that general training as a result of 
specific training has failed to reveal itself ; but the full educa- 
tional implications are not yet clear. 

b. Self -activity. — Other things being equal, does the edu- 
cational value of a study vary with the interest with which it 
is pursued, and the consciousness of its value to the student .'' 
Within limits the desirability of free election and of vocational 
studies depends upon the solution of this problem. Some of 
the vocational subjects are undoubtedly pursued with greater 
consciousness of adaptation to needs than are the more 
academic studies. Free election would somewhat tend to 



The Administration of High Schools 365 

fix responsibility on the student and evoke a deeper interest 
in the studies selected. Though in a general way interest 
and consciousness of purpose are believed to promote educa- 
tional value, these considerations are not yet greatly effective 
in determining high school courses. 

c. Problem of Vital Aim. — Is it feasible to make a dif- 
ferentiation of educational aims for secondary work which 
will tend to react on choice of content and method in subject- 
matter to the end that clearer and more conscious ideas may 
prevail in high school practice, these aims to supplant the 
inharmonious and incomplete aims of college preparation 
and mental discipline which now control .'' 

Various attempts have been made to formulate aims of this 
kind. The vocational aim is now in evidence, but there is no 
agreement as to how far it should prevail specifically and 
how far only in a general way. The social aim is distinctly 
in the minds of many educators in the shape of a body of 
civic and moral ideals, knowledge, and habits which should 
be developed as a result of a high school education ; but it is 
evident that very little of high school practice deliberately 
or accidentally contributes to this end. It has been shown 
that culture, in the narrower sense of the word, implying 
mainly the evoking of aesthetic and purely intellectual in- 
terests, has at times asserted itself. But it is probable that 
the studies, as at present administered, do not function in 
this way. A more fundamental and definite formulation of 
educational aims is greatly needed, to the end that it may 
determine character, scope, and method of high school studies 
and practices. 

2. FIXED COURSES AND THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM 

The foregoing discussion has shown some of the problems 
which must underlie the administration of a system of study, 
if it is sought to make the most effective adjustment possible 
to the individual pupil. Flexibility in the course is highly 
desirable if it can be shown that it does make considerable 
difference to a student what studies he follows ; but if per- 



366 Educational Administration 

sonal choices are apt to be unwise, and if it makes little dif- 
ference what studies a student pursues, or with what degree 
of interest, then freedom of election may be undesirable, and 
even productive of harm. 

Growth of Flexibility. — Generally speaking, the high 
school has always permitted freedom of choice among two 
or more courses. At first these were the classical and non- 
classical, the latter being held distinctly inferior. But as the 
teaching of science, English, and history improved, the re- 
sulting scientific, English, and modern language courses grew 
in value and in public estimation. In small schools there 
was often relatively little choice except in the matter of a 
foreign language where a modern could be substituted for an 
ancient. Then came choices among several sciences, but the 
number of these offered diminished with the increased re- 
quirement of the laboratory method. At present it may be 
said that throughout the secondary schools of the United 
States there are prescribed : a foreign language, algebra and 
geometry, English, a science, and one year of history. This 
makes about two-thirds of the course, leaving certain possible 
alternations, to be made according as the student aims to 
enter this or that college, or to go into active life. 

But in some schools much more freedom is allowed. The 
student may omit all foreign languages and may even omit 
mathematics if the remaining studies will give the required 
units. In a few schools, it is permitted a student to take such 
subjects (if he can accommodate them to his programme) out 
of their accustomed order ; as for example taking second-year 
chemistry in his last year in school. In a few schools the 
system of election is free, subject to the requirements, e.g., 
that there shall be two units of English, two of history, one 
of science, and one a foreign language. If the school is 
large and several sciences are offered, besides four years of 
history, three modern and two ancient languages, etc., the 
range of choice is considerable. The most extreme form of 
election, of course, is found where the only requirement im- 
posed upon the student is that he shall present a certain 
number of units for graduation, without reference to any pre- 



The Administration of High Schools 367 

scriptions at all. This is found in a few high schools, and 
when these offer manual training and domestic subjects, the 
possible range of choice becomes great indeed. 

Prescription vs. Election. — The arguments for and against 
the elective system are familiar. It is claimed that election 
permits greater adjustment of work to the individual pupil, 
and it is usually assumed that selection of subjects shall be 
made with advice of teacher and after consultation with 
parent, the pupil being supposedly serious in his choices and 
not swayed by whim. If to the boy or to his parents it seems 
improbable that he will stay more than a year or two, he may 
elect the work which will give him the maximum of educa- 
tional profit during that time. If he has strong interests or 
antipathies as concerns certain studies, or if his parents 
strongly favor or oppose them, then by making his own selec- 
tions he will take them up with strong interest and can be 
held to fuller responsibility. At its best, election is supposed 
to involve the idea of large self-activity. On the other hand, 
we have the familiar arguments that a youth of fourteen to 
sixteen is not able to make an intelligent choice of subjects, 
that he does not know his own future, that he will take 
certain studies because the teacher is popular or because the 
studies are reputed to be easy. The youth will make of his 
secondary education a hodge-podge, and will at the end 
regret that he did not put himself under direction. 

Varying Needs. — If we assume, as most parents do, that 
studies do differ in their educational values on the basis of 
content as well as in reference to mental discipline, and also 
as affected by the attitude and interest of the student, then 
there are reasons of adaptation to be considered. High 
school pupils differ widely among themselves in capacities, 
interests, possible careers in school, and future place and oc- 
cupation. Their educational needs vary largely, in so far as 
these are affected by the content of studies and uses to which 
studies can be put. If the parents knew the school and its 
purposes, they could do something, as could also the pupil. 
On the side of the school it could make adjustment to the 
pupil if it knew him well, his interests, capacities, probable 



368 Educational Administration 

future occupation, probable length of stay in school, and 
other factors of importance. But the school does not know 
these and lacks both the machinery and disposition to find 
out. Under these conditions, the problem is to find the 
means of choice which may come nearest to making the best 
adjustment. Certainly, unless we assume that the main end 
of the high school is simply mental training, and that in the 
fixed programmes the high school already possesses the best 
machinery wherewith to accomplish this, it can hardly be 
claimed that adjustments can be made simply by providing 
two or more fixed courses among which the pupil may make 
a choice. It needs no argument to show the uncertainty of 
the choices made by the pupil if left to his own judgment. 

Effective Adjustment. — But under a system of free or 
largely free election of subjects it is still possible for an ad- 
justment to be made which will involve composite action. If 
the pupil's previous school record is taken into account, the 
parent carefully informed as to the possibilities and probabil- 
ities of the various lines of election, and the pupil brought 
into consultation with an advising teacher and even with the 
principal, then it is possible that a better adjustment of studies 
can be made. To the objection that this is a laborious pro- 
cess it can only be answered that if it involves less waste of 
youthful energy than is lost through maladjustment to courses, 
it is surely an economical measure. 

There are many who believe that the large high school of 
the future will be not a classical or commercial or manual 
training high school, but that within the one institution will 
be offered opportunity for many lines of vocational work for 
both boys and girls, and a richer programme of social and cul- 
tural studies than is found at present. If that should prove to 
be the case, then in such a school the careful planning of elec- 
tion would become very important. It would be desirable to 
make various adjustments according as the vocational inter- 
ests of pupils were strong and their vocational needs pressing; 
for all education should seek to keep alive the cultural ele- 
ments and social elements, even in modest measure, when 
vocational education is being followed. On the other hand 



The Administration of High Schools 369 

there will be many pupils who would and who should be al- 
lowed to devote themselves largely to cultural and social 
studies, but who at the same time might take some portions 
of the vocational work for the sake of obtaining fuller educa- 
tion. 

Whether or not full election of subjects should prevail de- 
pends upon the acceptance or rejection of certain theories of 
mental training, and upon the degree to which the high school 
confines itself to imparting certain cultural information or 
widens its scope to varied lines of educational possibilities. 
Owing to the doubt which clouds the theory of mental train- 
ing, there are many who say that educational adjustment 
should be sought largely through the contents of the various 
studies, and that the educational worth of the latter should 
be determined on the basis of the degree to which they con- 
tribute to the formation of the habits, the fixing of the knowl- 
edge, and the development of the ideals which make for 
cultural interests, vocational power, and social righteousness 
and service. 

Coeducation. — It has been pointed out that the American 
high school is usually coeducational. In European countries 
this is seldom the case. Historically, women and girls had 
long been denied the educational opportunities which had 
evolved for men and boys ; and only within recent years have 
they won the right to equal participation in educational oppor- 
tunities. Throughout the United States, except in some uni- 
versities and professional schools, women now participate in 
all educational advantages, according to ability. Motives of 
economy have at the outset caused communities to erect high 
schools which should be coeducational ; and the results from 
coeducation not proving apparently bad, the practice has 
persisted, even in large cities which have ample means, if 
desired, to provide separate schools for the sexes. Recent 
studies show that the percentage of students in public institu- 
tions which are not coeducational is very small, and growing 
constantly less ; while in private institutions the percentage 
of students in non-coeducational schools is increasing in com- 
parison with the percentage in the coeducational ; but the 



370 Edttcational Administration 

gross number in both types of private school is f alHng off. In 
other words, the coeducational private school is yielding more 
rapidly than the other kind to the inroads of pubhcly sup- 
ported secondary education. 

Though coeducation seems to have proven a success, and 
though it has failed utterly to produce some of the evils 
which were anticipated from it, nevertheless some eminent 
students, approaching the subject from what practically 
amounts to a new point of view, find reasons to believe that 
it is apt to be harmful in its ultimate results. There can be 
no question that coeducation is not yet a matter of settled 
policy, and it certainly still presents open problems. Some 
of these are : {a) Does not coeducation tend to force upon the 
girl, however able she may be to pursue them, studies more 
suited to the use of boys and men .-' {b) In pursuing these 
under competition with boys, may girls not overexert them- 
selves from the standpoint of physical health ? {c) Or may 
not the preponderance of women teachers and girl students 
tend to feminize the programme, making it unprofitable for 
boys .'' {d) If, as some believe, the highest social possibilities 
of boys and girls are realized through separation and segre- 
gation during the sensitive adolescent period, so that boys 
become more manly and girls more womanly, then does not 
coeducation tend to interfere with this development by bring- 
ing boys and girls too much in contact .-' 

It may be frankly admitted that we do not yet know the 
solution of these problems ; that we must wait on evidence, 
collected under very difficult conditions and subject to imper- 
fect standards of measurement, before we can obtain answers. 
Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that modern progressive 
tendencies within the field of secondary education itself may 
largely mitigate some of the supposed evils, {a) The grow- 
ing flexibility of the high school curriculum makes it entirely 
possible for most girls to make programmes of study quite 
different from those of boys, in the aggregate, just as the 
programmes of various types of boys will differ from each 
other. The general introduction of vocational work as part 
of the school programme will tend to further differentiation. 



The Administration of High Schools 371 

In other words, the typical modern high school of large size 
offers a variety of educational opportunities, and tends less to 
prescribe the programme for any pupil ; so that various kinds 
of individual adjustment are feasible, {b^ The large high 
school also offers many opportunities for social differentiation. 
Pupils tend to fall into groups, in games, social meetings, etc., 
and these, if left to themselves, give opportunity for various 
kinds of sex-segregation. This, of course, does not involve 
the complete segregation of the boys' or girls' boarding school ; 
but it does offer the normal kinds of segregation and inci- 
dental contact that prevail in the home and in social life of 
the community generally. (<;) There can be no question but 
that the physical well-being of all secondary school pupils, 
and especially girls, needs careful oversight. Not merely the 
studies, but also the social life of the pupil needs careful con- 
sideration, and investigation, beyond that which has yet been 
made. Many girls are now over-stimulated, but there is little 
evidence that this has any persistent connection with coedu- 
cation, and the efforts to relieve it in general would probably 
also relieve the part due to the presence of the opposite sex. 



3. SPECIAL FUNCTIONS OF PRINCIPALS, HEADS OF DEPART- 
MENTS, AND TEACHERS 

High School Supervision offers some peculiar problems. 
Effective supervision of elementary school work is supposed 
to involve pedagogical uplifting of the teacher through the aid 
of a principal who knows the conditions of pedagogy well, 
and one who is able to apply them in the entire field of ele- 
mentary education. But in the high school, comprehensive 
supervision of instruction in the constructive sense is largely 
impossible because of the great degree of specialization. 
Only a most unusual man or woman would be able to be so 
familiar with the range of secondary school subjects in con- 
tent and method as to be able to supervise effectively the 
work. In the large high school this constructive supervision 
must be left to heads of departments ; and in the small one 



372 Educational Administration 

must be secured indirectly, through the failure or success of 
the students and the inspection of college examiners. 

Powers of Principal. — It is noteworthy that in the man- 
agement of American secondary schools much larger respon- 
sibilities devolve upon the principal than in the elementary 
schools, the office corresponding more nearly to the European 
practice. To a considerable extent he formulates the policy 
of the school, arranges courses of instruction, and at least has 
considerable powers of recommendation in the matter of se- 
lecting teachers. The community holds him responsible for 
the success or failure of the school, and consequently he is 
given large administrative powers. To such an extent is this 
true that very frequently, at least in cities of moderate size, 
the superintendent of schools devotes his attention primarily 
to elementary education, leaving the high school principal 
largely free. Not infrequently there has existed conflict of 
authority, the principal seeking powers coordinate with those 
of the superintendent and the right of direct communication 
with the board. Because the interests of elementary and 
secondary education involve so many different problems, it 
has occasionally been proposed that different boards of edu- 
cation should govern the two types of school, or that within 
the single board there should be two committees, one for each 
type, with large independent powers. Unquestionably, how- 
ever, these separatist tendencies must be wrong in the long 
run, for effective city supervision involves centralization and 
coordination of functions ; the board of education should 
control all city schools, and under them the superintendent 
should be the general administrator of the system. But be- 
yond this there is every reason for giving those in direct con- 
trol of the high schools extensive authority and as much 
responsibility. If the city is large, there might be an associ- 
ate superintendent of secondary education, and it would be 
well if such an office included supervision of all the education 
beyond the traditional sixth grade, so that the industrial and 
academic training of almost all children over twelve years of 
age could be unified and more effectively adjusted. In 
smaller communities the high school principal should be 



The Administration of High Schools 373 

given large powers of initiation and direction, as should ulti- 
mately elementary school principals. The high school prin- 
cipal, with the varieties of specialized work which he controls 
and the varied interests to be considered, should have power 
to select his faculty from a wide field. His choices should 
always have the approval of the superintendent and the 
board before final election ; but these should not attempt to 
make selections for the high school without the consent of the 
principal. Similarly, in the matter of the course of study, the 
selection of text books, and the purchase of equipment, 
the principal should have extensive powers of initiation and 
should be held responsible for results. 

Cobrdination of Departments. — Apart from these matters 
of general administration, the principal has other important 
functions. The first is in reference to that kind of supervision 
which will secure to each student under various specialized 
teachers, an apportionment of work which will be hygienically 
and educationally suitable. In the elementary school without 
departmental work, the teacher coordinates the various kinds 
of work performed by the pupil; under the departmental 
teaching of the high school, it is seldom that the various 
teachers will make an effective coordination without close 
direction from the principal. In their competition for the 
time and energy of the pupils many secondary teachers are 
in danger of overworking the growing children and of dis- 
regarding hygienic considerations. Much of secondary educa- 
tion is probably vitiated by failure to take due account of health 
conditions, especially in the case of girls. Upon the principal, 
organizing and supervising his faculty, much responsibility 
for many of the necessary adjustments finally fall. 

Adjustment of Pupil. — Where the curriculum of the school 
is flexible as regards the work a given student may take, a 
large responsibility also devolves upon the principal to enable 
each student to make the best adjustment possible to him. 
In small high schools the principal may do this himself ; in 
large schools he must delegate some responsibility, but hold 
himself as a court of appeal. As pointed out before, these 
adjustments should not be made without the close and intelli- 



374 Educational Admmistration 

gent cooperation of the parent. In few cities is enough yet 
done in the way of providing the parents with sufficient in- 
formation regarding the aims and possibihties of the secondary 
schools. Long before a pupil is ready for high school his 
father should have received from the high school a carefully 
prepared circular of information, answering the questions 
which an interested parent should want answered. Shortly 
before entering the high school, the child should receive a 
blank which may be filled out by the parent for the informa- 
tion of the school and giving ample opportunity for expression 
of opinion on the part of the parent. A similar blank should 
have been filled out by the pupil's last teacher, giving full 
information as to his tastes, capacities, behavior, and other 
facts which the secondary school should utilize in trying to 
locate the pupil. The pupil himself should be provided with 
printed information, and should be expected to fill out a blank 
with details of his ambitions, purposes, tastes, and reasons 
for his choice of particular lines of work. The principal or 
other adviser of the pupil should utilize all the information 
thus collected, and, if necessary, interpose his objections. 
To effectively adjust the pupil to the work which he is to take 
in the high school (the liberal high school, which does not 
merely prepare for college, is meant) is a matter of no little 
educational importance, and should be one of the large func- 
tions of the principal. 

Social Relations. — A further extension of this oversight 
is found in the establishment of profitable social relations for 
the pupil. Experience and theory concur in indicating the 
critical nature of the high school period in the fixing of social 
relationships. The vogue of athletics and social groups in 
the high school is proof of the natural demand on the part of 
the pupils for experience in social cooperation. In small 
high schools the relations between pupils and faculty are apt 
to be close and personal ; in large high schools this is only 
possible through the development of special agencies. The 
high school teacher meets possibly two hundred different 
pupils each day. Under these conditions, the establishment 
of personal acquaintance becomes very difficult, and it may 



The Admiitistration of High Schools 375 

be said that the only way to accomplish this is through some 
form of specialization of the social and advisory functions, 
under the direction of the principal. Where it is desirable to 
have oversight of the social group activities of the pupils and 
to have the school kept in touch with the homes of the pupils, 
it is possible that a special social agent or secretary for the 
school is necessary. This is especially important if the school 
seeks to cooperate with the pupils in seeking employment 
after leaving school. On the other hand, advisory functions 
may possibly be best exercised by members of the regular 
faculty through some system of assigning to each member 
a group of twenty or thirty pupils to which such member will 
act as adviser. Since during the long summer vacation many 
changes take place in the high school, pupils drop out and 
others undergo changes of attitude toward their work, it is 
desirable that the advisory teacher should continue with the 
same group through the vacation, so that she may discover 
changes of the sort indicated, and so that at the beginning of 
the year pupils who are not beginners may find ready some 
one with whom they are acquainted. There are some reasons 
for believing that it might prove advantageous if the adviser 
continued with the same group of pupils through all the years 
of their course. The continuity of relations thus established 
would tend to become more personal, and each faculty mem- 
ber would come to know a small group of students very 
intimately. 

Pedagogical Supervision is essentially the function of the 
head of a department. The programme of studies is an 
affair of the entire school, but the adjustment of methods 
and content within any line of work, and the improvement 
of the teachers in that field, must rest with the supervisor. 
The head of a department is himself a teacher, but opportu- 
nity must be allowed him to acquaint himself with the other 
teachers in his field, to the end that the standards of their 
work may be improved. 



376 Educational Administration 



4. PROGRAMMES OF INDIVIDUAL PUPILS 

At least two considerations must be influential in arrang- 
ing a programme of work for the individual pupil after his 
choice of subjects has been made. There are: {a) certain 
conditions of the learning process resting on physiological 
and psychological grounds ; and (d) the limitations of the 
school and its staff on the economic side. For example, 
where the work of a student is partly in such subjects as 
mathematics and partly in industrial subjects or laboratory 
work, it is generally deemed better that the earlier part of 
the day should be given to the first subject and the latter 
part to the work involving greater motor activity. But 
where a large equipment and staff are maintained, this is not 
economically feasible. The entire plant must be kept in 
operation during the school day. Similar considerations 
apply to shop work and where out-of-door farm work is 
developed in special types of high schools. Teachers and 
equipment must be kept in operation, even though the 
adjustment of work produced does not meet all the require- 
ments that physiological considerations might suggest. 

The operation of the elective system, to some extent, inter- 
feres with the regularity of the course of some students, and 
may have the effect of crowding some days with work and 
leaving others relatively empty. If the conditions of manage- 
ment are desired to be quite mechanical, this is an evil. But 
if considerable range is allowed for adaptation and modification 
in the individual pupil, he will speedily adjust himself to the 
conditions. It is even desirable within certain limits that the 
pupil should be required to fit himself to his own programme, 
and to make his own adjustments, as this gives him experi- 
ence in initiative in action which will be of service later. 

In the management of the high school, these considerations 
are important with regard to study : — 

a. School Work. — As far as possible, study and prepara- 
tion should be done in the school, and facilities ought to be 
provided for this. Classrooms are not always the best 
places for preparing work, though other facilities are not 



The Administration of High Schools 377 

always available. For several types of work, ample library 
space is desirable, so that pupils may carry on study and 
writing under library conditions, which, in their sphere, tend 
to reproduce the businesslike application of the laboratory 
and shop. 

b. Home Work should be assigned largely with reference 
to the entire quantity which the pupil is expected to receive 
from various teachers. In fact, it is possible that each teacher 
should keep a record of assignments, to the end that frequently 
the situation as regards any individual pupil may be checked 
up, and investigation made as to whether home assignments 
are excessive. Or records made at frequent intervals by 
each teacher could be kept in the principal's office for frequent 
consultation by teachers. The bookish side of high school 
work tends to be demanded in excess of pedagogic require- 
ments. The adviser should cooperate in enlightening the 
pupil as to the best methods and conditions of home study. 
Great wear and tear is caused by wrong methods of study, 
and by the nervous and uncertain attitude of the pupil when 
home conditions are unfavorable. 

c. Physical Culture. — The adjustment of the course and 
day should be such as to leave a considerable portion of the 
afternoon for physical training. In large cities, of course, 
where there are few opportunities for physical exercise and 
broad physical development, gymnasiums must be used, like 
shops and classrooms, in turn. But under favorable condi- 
tions, when the possibilities of exercise are widely and gener- 
ously appreciated, when walking, games, gymnasium work, 
and the like are all recognized to their full limit, it will be 
more and more possible to utilize a portion of the afternoon 
period for the physical education of the large majority of the 
high school pupils. 

d. Midday Intermission. — The programme of work should 
allow for considerable intermission at midday. The half-day 
session often tends to become unhygienic. Of course it may 
not be necessary for all teachers to stay the full day. 



378 Educational Administration 



5. ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE VOLUNTARY ACTIVITIES 

Social Activities. — The American high school tends to 
develop a considerable range of social or group activities of a 
voluntary nature, some of which harmonize with the aims of the 
school and some of which do not. Literary societies, debating 
societies, athletic clubs, fraternities, field clubs, and journal 
clubs are formed. From one point of view these represent 
something entirely normal and wholesome, unless misdirected ; 
for they are the functioning of the social instincts, and lead to 
experience which will later serve a useful purpose in social 
activity. The high school age, so-called, is a period of active 
social interest and great capacity for the formation of habits. 
The qualities of loyalty, codperation, group competition, and 
clan-like sympathy are very strong. Giving the stimulus of 
leadership and example, they tend to work out actively in 
various forms of expression. The exercise of these powers 
may prove quite absorbing to the pupil and cause his devo- 
tion to his prescribed pursuits to flag and waver. Further- 
more, the development of a certain social exclusiveness or 
clannishness, which appears in connection with the exercise 
of these voluntary group activities, may interfere with the 
democratic character of the school, and may entail standards 
of expenditure and of extra-school activity which many 
students are unable to meet. On the other hand, they often 
tend to supplement the work of the school excellently. The 
athletic activities, at their best, minister to physical develop- 
ment and certain forms of cooperation ; the literary and 
debating societies, as well as the group devoted to the publi- 
cation of journals, frequently give valuable experience. The 
fraternities, within certain limits, give social experience and 
power. 

The Direction of School Organizations. — The problem of 
these organizations at the present is one of development and 
direction. They manifest great vitality and are probably 
fundamentally involved in the wider growth of the children. 
Many educators must view them with sympathy, in spite of 
the fact that they so often conflict with the narrow aims of 



The Administration of High Schools 379 

the school; for they do seem to contribute something of edu- 
cational value, which the school subjects do not. It is use- 
less to say in this case that the children should be compelled 
to await the close of their high school course for the time to 
indulge in these activities. In so far as good results do come 
from all voluntary activities of the kind described, they un- 
doubtedly find their efficacy in the fact that this is a period 
of plasticity as regards the social instincts, and that develop- 
ment must come at this time or not at all. 

School Cooperation. — The fact is that so far as American 
day schools of secondary grade are concerned, they have 
seldom cooperated in the development of these activities, and 
not infrequently have maintained a positively hostile attitude. 
In this respect, one notices a strong contrast to the boarding- 
schools of the best type where the need of such cooperation 
becomes more insistent. The great effectiveness of the 
typical English boarding-school inheres at least as much in 
the excellence of the social life developed as in the curricu- 
lum. But the American high school, as a day institution, has 
not assumed much responsibility for the social development 
of its pupils, and social activities of various sorts have been 
allowed to develop sporadically, or as stimulated from outside 
sources. The connection between the home and the school 
in large cities has become less close, hence the former has 
been able to exercise only insufficient control of the pupils in 
their codperative activities. In such matters as athletics and 
fraternities, the high schools have not developed traditions and 
forms of their own, but have imitated higher institutions of 
learning, usually boarding schools, and have thus given 
a quite artificial direction to their social activities. 

What is wanted is a hearty recognition of the desirability 
of many forms of social activity in the high school, and the 
active participation of the faculty or specialized members 
thereof in their development. Already there are some evi- 
dences of this in the matter of athletics. Under a director 
of physical education, having a broad view of the physiologi- 
cal and social significance of sports and athletics, much can be 
done, as experience shows. Possibly in other social matters 



380 Educational Administration 

a large high school could not do better than to develop some 
kind of social secretary or school visitor who should study 
social needs and cooperate in the realization of means to 
meet them. In some schools the practice has arisen of hav- 
ing each society which is organized with the school as a basis 
select some member of the faculty as an advisory or counsel- 
ling member. This works well, and teachers should be pro- 
vided with time and means to cooperate. In small schools an 
active principal, of course, keeps the advisory functions in his 
own hands, but under present traditions he is not always 
sympathetic, looking upon social activities as something to be 
tolerated, but not encouraged. 

Authority of School over Social Organizations. — The gen- 
eral principle that all social activities within the high school 
should conform to large standards of aim and propriety laid 
down by the school, is sound. In legal contests with organiza- 
tions, like fraternities and athletic clubs, which have tended 
to set aside the authority of the school, the courts have usually 
decided in favor of the faculty and its controlling board of ed- 
ucation. The faculty must be in a position to regulate inter- 
school contests, to affect the standards of school publications, 
and to impose a proper limitation on fraternity activities. The 
school must develop machinery which will enable it to carry 
on this supervision effectively and constructively. It is peda- 
gogically unwise to think of suppression as a remedy for the 
evils which are incident to social activity in high schools. The 
school must seek out and develop lines of social participation, 
and must aim in friendly manner to aid those of spontaneous 
development. Only thus can it recognize the vast impor- 
tance of this period in social education. Social education of 
the best type will not be found in books, nor even through 
the contact of teachers of high social power. It must be 
learned in action, and the schools must aid in the development 
of channels for these activities. 



The Administratio7i of High Schools 381 



6. SELF-GOVERNMENT AND DISCIPLINE 

The Discipline of High Schools is affected by the fact that 
traditionally this type of school does not aim to keep all 
kinds of students, but only those who are manifestly profiting 
from the course. Hence it holds itself free to excuse from 
further attendance (to use no harsher term) those who by 
their conduct fail to contribute to the welfare of the school. 
To a great extent this is effective as long as the authorities 
have to deal only with individuals, but when groups with con- 
siderable inner coherence have been formed within the school, 
it becomes practically very difficult to maintain discipline on 
the above simple basis. To a considerable extent the antag- 
onism of many high school faculties to the activity of athletic 
and fraternal associations finds its source in the fact that the 
strongly cooperating groups thus formed may tend to assert 
themselves in the discipline of the school to the extent of re- 
fusing to observe regulations, or of maintaining a passive 
attitude of hostility to higher standards of scholarship. The 
effect of this cooperative resistance is demoralizing to the 
school, and, to a measurable extent, the faculty finds it necessary 
to yield. If the result is a sort of drawn battle, each side 
watching the other for overt signs of weakness, the faculty 
seeking to detect and convict the ringleaders of the opposition, 
the resulting situation is most unfortunate for the school. At 
the same time, it cannot escape the careful student of the 
situation that the pupils are developing certain powers of co- 
operation and loyalty to accepted beliefs which seem to be in 
much demand in the industrial and social world which will 
ultimately receive these boys and girls. 

Student Cooperation. — To meet this situation or to pre- 
vent it from arising, it is necessary that means of extensive 
cooperation should develop, and that the faculty of the 
school should enter into sympathetic cooperation with the 
pupil's point of view. Various devices have been experi- 
mented upon in trying to secure this result. Of course the 
personality of principal and teachers often accomplishes re- 



382 Educational Administration 

suits which are very real, with but little external manifestation 
of machinery. The rules of the school may provide for an 
elective consulting committee of the students, which coop- 
erates with the faculty. When such a committee is truly 
representative of the student body, it can accomplish much, 
and provides a regular avenue for the expression of the senti- 
ments of the students. It is found most effective not to elect 
a committee at the beginning of the school year, but prefer- 
ably in the middle, to the end that such committee or a large 
part of it may hold over the long vacation. To this com- 
mittee the faculty may refer questions of general policy for 
discussion, and even cases of discipline. Of course the 
authority of the faculty must finally prevail, but in school 
government it avails much to get any policy or case fully 
and sympathetically before the students. 

Self-government. — The above is the preliminary step 
toward student government, or student self-government, as it 
is sometimes called. If it once be conceded that it is desir- 
able and advisable to call representative students into council 
in case of policies and procedures, then it is apparent that 
the effective organization of students, with this end in view, 
may also become desirable. Many high schools have, there- 
fore, developed in greater or less degree student government, in 
which a committee or regularly elected set of representatives 
of the students assumes some of the authority and responsi- 
bilities of control and discipline. In some large schools, 
schemes of government patterned after that of a state or 
nation are developed, with legislative, executive, and judicial 
divisions. Before these organs come matters for legislation 
or administration. Back of the system of school government, 
of course, must stand a strong personality ; otherwise, the 
thing might mean shipwreck. The high school cannot ex- 
ercise a complete control over the Hves of its pupils, hence it 
must limit its powers of discipline largely to the school and 
school life. If it had control of the economic and social life 
of its pupils in every respect, as has the George Jr. Republic, 
it might allow corporate responsibility to go much further. 
As it is, however, in some schools a really great amount of 



The Administration of High Schools 2)^'^ 

authority has been devolved upon the pupils with good re- 
sults. 

The Ends of Self-government are twofold: it is a means 
toward preserving the order and effectiveness of the school ; 
and it is a means of the social development of the pupils. 
Even if, in the former respect, it did not prove more effective 
than ordinary forms of external control, it would probably 
still be abundantly justifiable on the ground that it promotes 
the social development of the students who come under its 
influence. For it teaches citizenship and the responsibilities 
of corporate life in a very objective way, and it must of ne- 
cessity be largely democratic. In view of the persistent 
need in a democratic country for preparation for civic duties 
and the inculcation of a sense of civic responsibility, it has 
been felt that self-government in schools as a means of dis- 
cipline should be greatly developed, in view of the fact that 
experience already demonstrates its feasibility. 



REFERENCES 

Periodical articles on secondary education are numerous in the School 
Review, Educational Review, Education, Proceedings of the National 
Educational Association, etc. The following list embraces a few of the 
most suggestive on administrative phases. An extensive bibliography is also 
in Brown, E. E, The Making of our Middle Schools. 

Baker, J. H. Educational Values, Ed. Rev. 10:209. — Book, W. F. 
Why Pupils drop out of High School, Ped. Sem. 11 : 204. — Broome, E. C. 
A Historical and Critical Discussion of College Entrance Requirements. 
New York (Col. Univ. Press), 1903. — Brown, E. E. The Making of our 
Middle Schools. New York, 1903. — Boynton, F. D. A Six Years' High 
School Course, Ed. Rev. 20:515. — Butler, N. M. What Knowledge is 
most Worth? Ed. Rev. 10:105. — Burnham, W. H. The Study of 
Adolescence, Ped. Sem. 1:174. — Burnham, W. H. Suggestions from 
the Standpoint of Adolescence, Sch. Rev. 5:652. — Conradi, E. Latin 
in the High School, Ped. Sem. 12:1. — Corbett, H. C. Free High 
Schools for Rural Pupils, Rep. of Cora, of Ed. 1899-1900:643 (also in 
Sch. Rev. 4 and 5). — Dexter, E. G. History of Education in the United 
States. New York, 1904. — DeGarmo. Principles of Secondary Education, 
New York, 1907. — Dewey, J. Are the Schools doing what the People want 
them to Do? Ed. Rev. 21:459. — Dewey, J. Ethical Principles under- 
lying Education, 3d Herbartian Year Book, 1-24. — Eliot, C. W. Desir- 



384 Educational Administration 

able and Undesirable Uniformity in Schools, Proc. N. E. A. 1892:82. 

— Eliot, C. W. Tendencies in Secondary Education, Ed. Rev. 417. — 
Elliot, E. C, and others. The Education and Training of Secondary 
School-teachers, 4th Year Book of the Nat. Soc. for Sci. Study of Ed- 
ucation. Chicago, 1905. — Ellis, A. C. High School Attendance, Ed. 
Rev. 28 : 188. — Gilbert, C. B. The Various Educational Demands upon 
the High School, Ed. Rev. 23: 136. — Goodwin, E. J. The Curriculum 
of the Small High School, Sch. Rev. 3:268. — Greenwood, J. M. Re- 
port on High School Statistics, Proc. N. E. A. 1900 :34o. — Griggs, E. H. 
Moral Education. New York, 1904 (extensive bibliography). — Gunnison, 
W. B. Should the Entire Time of the High School Principal be given 
to Administration ? Proc. N. E. A. 1905 : 452. — Hadley, A. T. Use and 
Control of Examinations, Ed. Rev. 21 : 286. — Hall, G. S. Adolescence. 
New York, 1900. — Hall, G. S. Youth and its Regimen. New York, 
1907. — Hall, G. S. The High School as the Peoples' College, Ped. Sem. 
9:63. — Hall, G. S. How Far is the Present High School Course . . . 
adapted to the Needs of Adolescents ? Sch. Rev. 9:649. — Hanus, P. H. 
Educational Aims and Values. New York, 1899. — Huling, R. G. Prob- 
lems which confront the High School at the Opening of the Century, 
Ed. 21 : 129. — Huling, R. G. Failures in the First Year of High School, 
Ed. Rev. 20:463. — Jacobs, W. B. Values in Secondary Education, Ed. 
Rev. 9:135. — Jacobs, W. B. Are the Schools doing what the People 
want them to Do ? Ed. Rev. 21 : 448. — Jenks, J. A Critique of Educa- 
tional Values, Ed. Rev. 3:1. — Jones, D. R. State Aid to Secondary 
Schools. Berkeley, 1903. — Kennedy, H. P. Effect of High School Work 
upon Girls during Adolescence, Ped. Sem. 3:469. — Keyes, C. H. Dif- 
ferentiation of the American Secondary School, Proc. N. E. A. 1899: 
412. —Locke, G. H. A Bibliography of Secondary Education (classi- 
fied index of first ten vols, of Sch. Rev.). Chicago, 1903. — Luckey, 
G. W. A. Professional Training of Secondary School-teachers in the 
United States. New York (Col. Univ. Press), 1903. — McAndrew, W. A. 
High School Self-government, Sch. Rev. 5:456. — Mead, E. D. Adjust- 
ment of Education to Contemporary Needs, Ed. Rev. 19:472. — Moore, 
E. H. On the Foundations of Mathematics, Sch. Rev. 11:521 (also 
Science, 17:401). — Munroe, J. P. Manual Training and Vocation, Ed. 
Rev. 17:470. — Mlinsterberg, H. Psychology and Education, Ed. Rev. 
16: 105. — Nightingale, A. F. Rigid vs. Elastic Courses, Sch. Rev. 6: 
301. — O'Shea, M. V. Better Articulation of our Educational System, 
Journal of Pedagogy 11 : 304. — Parsons, J. R. High School Attendance, 
Ed. Rev. 27:293. — Patten, S., and others. Teaching Economies in 
Secondary Schools, Proc. Am. Economic Assn. 1895:119 (vol. 10). — 
Perry, J. The Teaching of Mathematics, Ed. Rev. 23:158. — Perry, J, 
Discussion on the Teaching of Mathematics. New York, 1902. — Phillips, 
D. E. The Elective System in American Education, Ped. Sem. 8:206. 

— Pritchett, H. S. Industrial and Technical Training in Popular Edu- 
cation, Ed. Rev. 23:281. — Russell, J. E. German Higher Schools. 



The Administration of High Schools 385 

New York, 1905. — Sachs, J. Problems in Preparatory Education, Sch. 
Rev. 6:157. — Shorey, P. Discipline ^'J. Dissipation in Secondary Edu- 
cation, Sch. Rev. 5:217. — Steele, W. L. Extent of Electives in the 
High School, Proc. N. E. A. 1899 : 331. —Tetlow, J. The High School 
Principal, his Rights, Duties, and Opportunities, Ed. Rev. 17:227. — 
Tetlow, J. Electives in the High School, Ed. Rev. 21:39. — Thurber, 
C. H. Principles of School Organization. Worcester, 1903 (also in Ped. 
Sem. 8:351). — Teachers College Record, 1906: nos. 2 and 3 (The 
Curriculum of the Secondary School). — Rep. of Com. of Ed. 1903: 
1075 (BibHography of Coeducation). — Nat. Ed. Assn., Rep. of Com. 
of Ten. New York, 1894. 



sc 



CHAPTER XXI 

The Administration of the Normal School 

Professional training for teachers has been accepted as 
an essential factor in the development of public education. 
Since the first normal school was opened in Massachusetts 
three quarters of a century ago, the ideal of expert teaching 
has made rapid headway, until every state in the Union sup- 
ports normal schools, and many of our universities and colleges 
provide instruction in the history and theory of education. 
Many cities support training-schools for the same purpose, 
and there are also institutes, reading circles, and other agencies 
supported at public expense. The number of public normal 
schools in the United States is i8i, private 83, making 264 
in all. There are 269 universities and colleges where edu- 
cation has a recognized place. Several cities support training- 
schools. 

Demand for Professional Training. — The current belief has 
been that education differs widely from other professions in 
being easier to acquire and practise. This has been due to 
the fact that the larger number of teachers have entered their 
work with no training whatever, and the additional fact that 
many men and women have attained both success and emi- 
nence, having had only academic training. But with the 
example before us of Germany and France, where all teachers 
are trained and tested before being certificated for work, and 
in view of the acknowledged superiority of German teachers 
as regards technique; also, in the light of our increasing 
knowledge of the child, and the laws of mental life, — it is safe 
to predict that in the not distant future it will be made im- 
possible for any person to teach in schools of importance 
without adequate preparation. Let it be acknowledged that 

386 



The Ad^ninistration of the Normal School 387 

education is a comparatively new profession, and that the 
field which it properly includes has not been fully determined 
or explored; let it be admitted, also, that the history of normal 
schools in the United States is not a story of enlightened and 
consistent progress from the known to the unknown. It is 
still true that the chief hope of progress in popular education 
lies with the Normal School. 

Difficulties in the Way. — Until recent times state legisla- 
tures were moderately slow in making sufficient appropriations 
for the housing and equipment of normal schools. For many 
years these schools were computed to receive as students 
persons of meagre education, and so must either add profes- 
sional training to a foundation which was quite unstable, or 
else proceed to give such instruction in the common branches 
as might be necessary. As high schools were established in 
all towns and cities, it became possible to make a stand for 
high school training as a prerequisite to admission to the 
normal schools. Many states have taken this step, and 
according as the high school training is broad and thorough, 
and the normal school is equal to its task, teachers have 
entered the field who have both scholarship and teaching 
abihty. 

Unsettled Questions. — There is still a great lack of agree- 
ment as to what should constitute normal training, what 
studies and in what amount, what proportion of theory and 
what of practice, and how these two phases of professional 
education should be related to each other. Even in the field 
of the history of education, which is almost universally re- 
garded as an essential study, the leaders seem to be in a 
maze of doubt and uncertainty as to the best selection of 
subject-matter. According as the educational ideal is nar- 
rowed to very practical ends, or as it is broadened to square 
with the highest conception of human life and destiny, so the 
history of education as taught in normal and other profes- 
sional schools ranges from typical studies of theory and prac- 
tice to the significant phases of the growth and progress of 
peoples and the social factors which have affected their 
careers. 



388 Educational Administration 

The Old and New Psychology. — The same general situation 
exists in the field of educational psychology. Some believe 
that all instruction can be based upon intellectual laws well 
defined and established. Others declare that teaching as a 
science cannot be built upon psychology at all, and that 
teachers receive very little benefit from its study. Some who 
have faith in their ability to establish the principles of teach- 
ing on a psychological basis are contented with the conclu- 
sions which have a historic support. In more progressive 
circles the value of the old and familiar psychology is mini- 
mized, and the genetic and experimental aspects of the sub- 
ject are pushed to the front. 

In the field of method and practice there is an equally 
wide variation, and it would not be possible to find exact agree- 
ment among any considerable number of experts as to the 
best way to develop technical skill in the various fields of 
practical work. 

Diversity of Type. — It is obvious that because of the great 
variation in opinion and belief regarding the inner motive and 
practical methods of normal school instruction, it would be 
unreasonable to expect any considerable degree of uniformity 
of type, taking the country as a whole. There are other 
reasons than those already mentioned why the normal schools 
of the United States have always presented a great variety 
of type, and still continue to do so. All the characteristics of 
soil, climate, relief, educational advancement, public spirit, 
and civic pride, which determine the quality and quantity of 
other forms of public service, operate in this field, also. It 
is noticeable that in any given state there is some similarity 
in organization and equipment as well as in the methods 
employed. 

Grouping according to Type. — The report of the special 
committee on normal schools, published in 1899, grouped 
normal schools of the country roughly as those of New Eng- 
land, the South, the Middle states, the Mississippi Valley, and 
the Pacific slope, and pointed out the special characteristics of 
each group. Doubtless, the ten years which have elapsed 
since that report was written have seen some reduction in 



The Administration of the Normal School 389 

this variation of type. At present, the most marked differ- 
ences are found in the adjustment of theoretical and practical 
work, and even here there is a decided trend toward the 
practice school as an increasingly influential factor. 

The Industrial Normal School. — If we include in our con- 
sideration such institutions as those at Hampton and 
Tuskegee and all similar schools in the South, supported 
largely by benevolence, we find a marked change from the 
common type. This is caused by the necessity of adapting 
education to vocational ends. The abolition of slavery left a 
problem of ignorance and inefficiency in the black race which 
is yet by no means solved. General Armstrong and his fol- 
lowers, in undertaking to train teachers in agriculture and the 
mechanical trades, gave a turn to the normal school problem 
which is of immense significance to American education and 
life. To train the children of ignorant people, black or 
white, to work with their hands, learn useful trades, become 
honest, thrifty, socially and morally strong, is coming to be 
looked upon not merely as a special thing in education, but as 
the recognition of a universal principle and one that must be 
recognized throughout the country. The success which 
attends such institutions as those we have cited, as well as 
that most impressive of all modern institutions for normal 
training, the Macdonald College near Montreal, are prophetic 
of a common school education in the future which shall come 
close to the lives of the people, bringing thrift and beauty into 
their homes, teaching those practical arts which make both 
men and women more serviceable and also making that dif- 
ferentiation which is demanded in our congested cities, where- 
by boys and girls are introduced to useful trades and are put 
in possession of the elements, at least, of skilled handcraft. 

The Outlook for Rural Schools. — In the great fields of 
horticulture, agriculture, and forestry, the normal schools of 
the United States which train teachers for the rural sections 
have not only a large field for practical effectiveness, but a 
rich and interesting opportunity considered from the higher 
and more ideal points of view. The administrative problem 
as regards the normal schools of the United States is no 



390 Educatio7zal Administration 

longer to be confined to a scheme of education which is 
theoretical and bookish, but is to find its subject-matter in 
real things, — in the farm, the shop, and those practical ac- 
tivities and those civic and social functions which dominate 
our common life. In this way the industrial element will 
gradually be introduced into all common schools. The Man- 
ual Training idea will be broadened and deepened. The idea 
that all normal schools may be alike will be discarded. Just 
as in our great cities there are now different kinds of high 
schools, such as commercial, technical, manual, and literary, 
so we may expect to see in the future, normal schools spe- 
cially equipped to train teachers in agriculture, having at their 
command a farm and all the means of making practical illus- 
tration of their vocation. 

Normal schools may also be specially organized to pre- 
pare teachers for various kinds of technical and trade in- 
struction or for commercial pursuits. Those who are thus 
trained will then become teachers in other normal and 
training schools and in industrial establishments, some 
of which are already undertaking to provide instruction for 
their operatives in order that they may be able to earn a 
higher wage and become more valuable to themselves and 
the concern. 

Unity in Educational Ideal. — What has been said would 
indicate that diversity of type in normal schools is likely 
to increase rather than diminish in the coming years. 
This may be expected especially as we consider the special 
purposes which such schools have and the adaptation which 
they should make to the social and industrial needs of the 
community where they are located. If, however, we view 
them with reference to their acceptance of modern educa- 
tional ideas and their liberality and elasticity in accepting 
and applying them, we may look for increasing unity. That 
the teaching in some normal schools has been as dry as dust, 
and the attitude of instructors has been rigidly conservative 
and dogmatic, cannot be denied. Some of them are behind 
the times, are too well satisfied with what they have accom- 
plished, hesitate to employ others than their own graduates, 



The Administratio7t of the Normal School 391 

and thus suffer from the dry-rot which inbreeding always 
occasions. No administrative officers in educational work 
are more independent and freer from molestation than the 
heads of normal schools. Except as they have the children 
of the community in their practice schools, they have their 
way undisturbed and are not amenable to outside criticism. 
This is one explanation of the retardation of progress which 
is to be seen in some of these schools, and points to a danger 
which should be recognized in their administration. 

What may be Demanded. — Normal schools ought to lead 
rather than follow ; they should be willing to make experi- 
ments ; they should cultivate open-mindedness and patient 
investigation on the part of their students ; they should antici- 
pate the needs of communities in respect to the closer rela- 
tionship of the school to the community — the treatment of 
peculiar, defective, and neglected children, the segregation of 
disturbing elements, the nurture and oversight of city children 
during vacations, the establishment of social centres, the re- 
lation of schools to public libraries, to museums, churches, to 
aesthetic culture, to commercial and industrial movements, to 
books and reading. The normal school, like any other 
school, may be cursed by too complete a system and by a too 
great perfection of method. It has long been understood that 
a school as a machine may be superb, and yet as a vitalizing 
and enriching influence it may still be lacking. 

New Fields to be Occupied. — Viewing the normal school as 
the fountainhead of educational influence in the state, how 
important that its administration should be alive to the 
rapidly changing conditions of modern life, to the discoveries 
of biological and psychological research, to the fruits of child 
study, to the wide range of physical defect which is to be 
recognized and considered in every school, to the methods of 
preventive and corrective treatment, to all those pathological 
conditions which affect both teachers and pupils. Attention 
to these matters insures professional joy and satisfaction in 
teaching, but their neglect permits the school atmosphere to 
remain abnormal and unwholesome. Looking at the prob- 
lem from this broader point of view, it would seem that there 



392 Educational Administration 

must, of necessity, be a convergence of opinion and action in 
coming years, so that in progressiveness and real professional 
alertness there will be almost a common type. 

The Movement is surely Forward. — Public education holds 
so lofty and dignified a place in American thought that inert- 
ness, ultra-conservatism, and blindness to modern demands 
will not be tolerated. The normal school of the future will 
combine the most careful selection and unification of subject- 
matter with the methods of the experiment station and the 
clinic. The elimination of the old and the substitution of the 
new will not be approached with dread and hesitation, and 
educators in this field will be as quick to act upon new dis- 
coveries as are physicians and clergymen in their depart- 
ments of work. 

The Aims of the Normal School. — In the report to which 
reference has been made and which may be regarded as a 
sort of Bible on this subject, the qualities requisite in the 
teaching staff of the normal school are named in the follow- 
ing order : first, character ; second, teaching ability ; third, 
scholarship ; fourth, culture ; fifth, professional spirit. 
Arranging these characteristics in a slightly different order 
for the sake of logical and progressive sequence, they would 
seem to stand for those aims which every normal school 
should seek to reach, namely : first, character ; second, 
scholarship ; third, culture ; fourth, teaching abihty ; fifth, 
professional spirit. Each one of these aims is essential to 
the others ; they are all closely related to each other, and it 
would seem difficult to arrange them in any other order, think- 
ing of their relative importance. Let us briefly analyze 
these aims and see what they have to suggest toward a solu- 
tion of the administrative problem : — 

First, Character. — The intending teacher is presumably 
young, has by inheritance those physical, ethical, and social 
qualities which go to make up personality. The first ques- 
tion which the normal school must face is, " Can personality 
be improved," and can this improvement be made with the 
distinct purpose of adding vocational and executive power .-' 
Thinking of the immense importance of personal influence 



The Administration of the Normal School 393 

in teaching, of the truth that life begets life and that heart 
speaks to heart, it must be seen that the normal school should 
seek to awaken those emotions, those modes of thinking and 
those forms of conduct, that fideHty and that outlook upon 
life which will react upon the individual and induce an or- 
ganic change which is like cellular growth in the plant 
world, but which steadily approaches its proper mode. 
There should be an atmosphere charged with consecra- 
tion to a high purpose ; there should be ambition to do well 
in an honorable profession, there should be daily satisfaction 
in growing power; there should be the consciousness of 
achievement; and there should be the inspiration which 
springs from the pursuit of truth and the study of truth 
as a means of helping others. Surely this is the first desid- 
eratum in normal training, and it is of such spiritual signifi- 
cance that it must be regarded as more important than other 
and more technical aims. 

Second, Scholarship. — Here, also, there is a definite work 
to be performed. No attempt to absolutely separate academic 
from professional training has, or ever will, be successful. 
Whether with high school or college graduates, subject-mat- 
ter must be approached in a more mature and serious way 
than has been the case in other schools. It must be viewed 
at a new angle ; there must be a different perspective. What 
passed for knowledge becomes ignorance when sifted in the 
light of the teaching process. Here the important can be 
separated from the unimportant. Fundamental relationships 
may be discovered and proved ; cross-references may be 
made ; the importance of apperception and association give 
a new significance to learning. Then there are practical 
questions of intrinsic worth and pedagogical adaptation which 
give the subject-matter new values and new functions. Mere 
acquisition sinks into insignificance ; interest, appreciation, 
thinking, and proving become active elements ; the study of 
nature presents new interests and new beauties ; the process 
of knowing things for the sake of teaching them becomes a 
clinical process. It is not merely the truth itself, but its value 
as an active force working upon the human mind gind its effi- 



394 Educational Administration 

cacy to inform, to discipline, and to refine. There is a possi- 
bility of being misunderstood in the use of terms, but in 
general the attempts which are often urged to make the 
normal school purely professional imply a neglect of sub- 
ject-matter which is fallacious. The history of education 
and psychology furnishes new insights which can be utilized 
only as they are applied in sifting and organizing the materi- 
als for teaching. The review of whatever has been studied in 
the elementary or secondary field, if directed by pedagogical 
experts, will develop new interests, proper points of view, and 
a more ready command in student teachers. No one should 
undertake to give instruction in a normal school who does not 
have the professional spirit in the use of subject-matter, not 
merely for its broader cultural values, but as concrete mate- 
rial for the illustration of rational methods of teaching. 

Third, Culture. — That general culture is needed by teach- 
ers is self-evident. Many come to the normal school from 
inferior homes. Their inheritance has not been one of edu- 
cation and refinement. The social group to which they 
belong has not been charged with uplifting influences. Their 
acquaintance with the best books is limited, and their aesthetic 
taste is unformed. Here, as in all educational work, the cor- 
rective element must come into play, and the normal school 
must endeavor to so level up the standards of its students 
through cultural influences as to partially overcome the con- 
ditions mentioned. There must be in the school an atmos- 
phere of art, music, and good books ; the faculty of the school 
and the teachers of the training-school should have much 
to give, and should be generous in their giving. Social 
circles should be encouraged in which much attention is 
given to personal power, cultured conversation, good form, 
and refined behavior. Much of this must be, of course, 
incidental and natural. To stimulate too much self-conscious- 
ness or to make such attempts to improve the personality, 
mechanical or perfunctory, would defeat the end in view. 
It must be apparent, however, that the administrative aim 
must here find as large a field as in the case of character and 
scholarship. The pedagogue must first be a man or a woman 



The Administration of the Normal School 395 

in the true sense, and must represent what is good and true 
in life and conduct, so that he may be a living force, always 
teaching by example and by silent influence. 

Fourth, Teaching Ability. — The transmutation of theoreti- 
cal knowledge into skill, with all that is therein implied, has 
probably taken the most conspicuous place in the thought 
and effort of those engaged in training teachers. Recent 
discussions have laid very great emphasis upon teaching as 
an art, and upon the various means available for training 
work, as also upon the continuance of improvement in ability 
after the teachers have entered the service. It is generally 
agreed that the practice or training school is a very important 
part of the normal school equipment. The administration of 
this phase of the work will later be discussed by itself, and 
so it is only necessary here to recognize the relative place 
which the cultivation of technical skill holds in the work of 
the school. However great the emphasis we place upon char- 
acter, scholarship, and culture, we freely admit that freedom, 
ease, confidence, quick adaptation and adjustment, power in 
presentation, skill in questioning, and facility in the use of 
all the elements of teaching are likely to hold the first place 
in professional training. 

Fifth, Professional Spirit. — The requisites for successful 
teaching already mentioned point unquestionably to that ideal 
condition of the mind known as professional spirit. It is 
most desirable that American teachers possess this quality, for 
it lifts their vocation above that of the ordinary wage-earner 
and transfigures the worker. The normal schools of the 
country must set their face sharply against too much formal- 
ism and red tape, or too much refinement of method. They 
must ever seek to liberalize, to broaden, to enrich the minds 
of all their students so that the practical efficiency so desirable 
may be inspired and sustained by the impelling purpose of 
professional zeal. The mercenary spirit of the practices of 
the trade-union are quite opposed to the highest conception 
of teaching. 

The Control of the Normal School. — The relation of the 
state to its normal schools is not quite uniform. In California 



396 Educational Administration 

there are both local boards and joint boards, the former of five 
members appointed by the Governor, which directs the expen- 
ditures of the school, and the latter composed of the presidents 
of the several normal schools, presidents of boards, and two 
elected members from each board, formulates the course of 
study. 

In Colorado there is a board of seven members, six ap- 
pointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. The 
state superintendent is the president ex officio. 

Each normal school in Illinois has its own board, which 
possesses full authority. 

In Kansas there is a board of regents appointed by the Gov- 
ernor which holds office four years, one-half being appointed 
every two years. This board makes courses of study, selects 
teachers, and fixes salaries. 

In Maryland the State Board of Education controls the nor- 
mal schools, formulates courses of study, appoints teachers, 
and directs how the revenues shall be expended. The prin- 
cipal is a member of the board and has large influence in its 
legislation. 

In Massachusetts the Board of Education has entire control 
of the state normal schools, which is one of the few matters in 
which they have any authority. 

In Minnesota there is a special board of nine members, of 
which the secretary is the State Superintendent. Four mem- 
bers reside in the several cities where the normal schools are 
located, and these resident directors, with the presidents, man- 
age them, subject to the regulations of the board. Teachers 
are named by the presidents of the schools. 

In Missouri normal schools are governed by boards of re- 
gents. Each school has its separate board which controls the 
course of study, appointment of teachers, and the expenditure 
of revenue. The State Superintendent is a member ex officio, 
and has the power of voting. The State Board of Education 
of New Jersey, consisting of sixteen members, is appointed 
by the Governor, two for each congressional district. The 
normal schools are governed by this board. The cases cited 
are typical of the practices throughout the country. 



The Administration of the Normal School 397 

The normals of Pennsylvania differ from those of other states 
in being restricted by a somewhat peculiar law. Each school 
must have a faculty of six professors, accommodations for 
three hundred boarders, and a chapel seating a thousand 
adults before it can be legally recognized. Each school is in 
the hands of a board of trustees of eighteen citizens, six of 
whom are appointed by the State Superintendent, and twelve 
are elected by the contributors. Courses of study framed by 
the convention of normal school principals must be approved 
by the State Superintendent. 

Maintenance of Normal Schools. — In the report of the 
Commissioner for 1906 it is stated that of the 181 public nor- 
mal schools, 157 received from public appropriations the sum 
of ^4,643,365; 20 received ^631,680 from tuition ; 16 received 
^142,941 from productive funds; and 37 received ^341,167 
from other sources. Thus the aggregate income from 157 
schools was $5,759,153. This does not include 1^1,549,906 
appropriated from public funds for buildings and improve- 
ments. These figures show that tuition fees constitute no 
very important part of the funds required for maintenance. 
The states have accepted the responsibility for the support of 
normal schools, and, this being the case, they are not likely to 
receive in the future any considerable sums by endowment. 

There are eighty-three private normal schools which own 
considerable property and receive fairly good support from 
churches and other benevolent organizations. In Pennsyl- 
vania, where each student pays tuition, there has often been a 
surplus which has been put into improvements or the erection 
of buildings. The Colorado Normal School is supported by 
tax of \ mill on the state assessment. In addition, the school 
has received special appropriations. The total income of this 
school for the year 1905-1906 was $78,500. In addition 
$20,000 was received for buildings and improvements. The 
one Indiana normal school at Terre Haute received in 1905- 
1906 $115,371 from the state and some additional funds from 
other sources, making its total income $119,835. The Iowa 
State Normal School received from the state in the same year 
$174,250 and other funds, making its total income $194,250. 



398 Educational Administration 

The revenues of the state normal school at Emporia, Kansas, 
are derived from three sources : first, appropriations from the 
legislature; second, income of the endowment fund; and third, 
fees from the model school and special pupils. In several 
other instances the income of the school is increased by mod- 
erate fees from pupils in the model or training schools. Wis- 
consin is unique in having a normal school fund amounting 
to about $2,000,000, which is derived from the sale of public 
land ordinarily accorded to the state as swamp lands. A 
comparison of these recent appropriations with those made a 
decade since show decided growth in the progress of liberal- 
ity and willingness of the states in supporting normal schools. 
The agricultural prosperity of the country has been most 
salutary in its influence upon this class of expenditure for 
education. 

The Curriculum of the Normal School. — It is not proposed 
to discuss at length this branch of the subject. The 
following outline for a two years' course as pursued in one 
of the older schools of the country probably indicates what 
has been regarded as a minimum requirement in all normal 
schools : — 

1. Psychology, history of education, principles of teaching, 
methods of instruction and discipline, school organization, 
school laws of Massachusetts. 

2. Methods of teaching the following subjects : — 

a. English — reading, language, composition, liter- 
ature, history. 

b. Mathematics — arithmetic, bookkeeping, elemen- 
tary algebra, and geometry. 

c. Science — elementary physics and chemistry, ge- 
ography, physiology, and hygiene, study of minerals, 
plants, and animals. 

d. Drawing, vocal music, physical training, manual 
training. 

3. Observation and practice in the training-school, and 
observation in other public schools. 

A good many have introduced courses of three years and four 
years for the special purpose of training teachers for secondary 



The Administration of the Norvtal School 399 

schools, and several, as, for instance, the normal college at 
Albany, are specially committed to that class of work. 

The variations from a common type in respect to the 
curriculum may be classified under two heads : first, those 
schools where great attention is given to the newer subjects, 
as child study, school gardening, horticulture, and agriculture, 
manual and industrial education, domestic art and science, the 
practice of self-government and the study of such correla- 
tions as the school and the home, the school and the library, 
and the relation of the school to the social and industrial and 
commercial activities of the community; and second, those 
pursuing advanced methods of treating the history of edu- 
cation, educational psychology, school management, etc., to 
which reference has already been made. As previously sug- 
gested, the strength of public education in America will not 
lie along the path of strict uniformity either in educational 
provisions or in method, but rather in a growing flexibility 
and wise adaptation to local needs and changing social con- 
ditions. There should be, however, a common understanding 
as to the broader functions of professional training, and the 
readiness to revise all systems and plans to suit the require- 
ments of a nation that is yet in the making, and which puts 
the free public school as the first chief means of establishing 
and developing our free institutions. 

The Training or Practice School. — The limits of this dis- 
cussion will permit only a brief statement regarding what 
is, by general consent, the most important means which the 
normal school can employ to accomplish its practical ends. 
This training-school should be well housed, thoroughly 
equipped, and should present in its working aspects the 
same features as a good public school. If it falls short of 
this, or if it is in any way unusual in its arrangements or 
greatly superior to the common type, it will partially fail 
in its purpose. 

Such a training-school should be large enough to provide 
training facilities for all the students in proper order. Many 
normal schools numbering their students by hundreds are 
much handicapped by having a very small model or practice 



400 Educational Administration 

school. According as a school has in its graduating class 
50, 100, or 200 students, there should be from 10 to 20 class- 
rooms in the training-school. 

Centralization and Unity Required. — The director or head 
of the normal school should, of course, be supreme in the 
management of the training-school. At the same time the 
principal of that school should be a person of initiative and 
force, and should be given, within reasonable limits, the great- 
est possible opportunity to work out the objects for which 
the school exists. The principal must be in close and sym- 
pathetic relations with the heads of departments, with critic 
teachers, and all other workers. His word should stand 
above all others with reference to the general plan and spirit 
of the training work. The main thing is to have unity of 
purpose, which is recognized both by the president or director 
and the principal. Too great independence of action on the 
part of heads of departments or critics is disastrous. In an 
institution where different parts of the work need to be closely 
articulated, there is a call for a reasonable amount of self- 
suppression and loyalty to the general aim. 

Correlation of Theory and Practice. — Heads of depart- 
ments will undertake to secure correlation between the work 
in the normal school and the work in the grades. Each sub- 
ject should be taught in somewhat the same spirit in both 
departments. They will hold frequent conferences with the 
classroom and critic teachers, discussing the subject-matter 
and deciding what may be eliminated and what may be re- 
garded as most essential. The teachers in the training-school 
should be both teaching experts and wise critics. Their best 
service will be in conducting lessons before their students in 
such a model way as to make the desired impression. All 
criticism should be constructive and cumulative. Nothing 
is worse than criticism which breaks down and undermines 
courage and confidence, and nothing is better than that which 
inspires hope and arouses new ambitions. Severe criticism 
kills enthusiasm and brings into relief the mechanical features 
of teaching work. 

Student-teaching. — Normal students should first observe 



The Administration of the Normal School 401 

good work, and then should have the opportunity of teach- 
ing at least one lesson per day throughout the entire year, 
although the training work for a given student may be com- 
pressed into a few months, provided he is relieved of other 
demands. Students should have only a small group of pupils 
in their first efforts at teaching, but gradually be able to 
assume control of an entire class and conduct it alone for a 
full session. This suggests the great importance of observa- 
tion work and practical experience in all the details of class- 
room management, the use of books and materials, and other 
things which belong to the duties of the teacher. 

Little need be said about the place and function of the 
model school. If the normal school can have placed at its 
service a few schoolrooms taught by the very best teachers, 
which may serve as an object-lesson, there can be no objec- 
tion, and it may be of considerable value. But the usual 
policy now is to make every room in the training-school as 
nearly perfect as possible, and not to let the idea prevail that 
anything less than the best is permitted. 

New Demands upon the Normal ScliooL — We have already 
referred to the newer studies which are knocking for admis- 
sion to our educational system, and for which the normal 
school must provide teachers. There are other demands 
arising from the growing and increasing differentiation of 
normal from abnormal pupils. If there are to be special 
classes for those physically defective or deficient, or for those 
who are morally unfit to associate with other pupils, there 
will soon be in every state and every city a demand for teach- 
ers specially trained for this work. Each normal school must 
have its special classes, and serious study must be made of 
abnormal pedagogy. There is also a demand for specialists 
in institutions for the feeble-minded, in asylums for orphans, 
in reformatories and prisons. Should the normal schools of 
the country take up this class of work, the usual training 
would receive rich additions of knowledge and experience. 
For every teacher needs to have an insight sufficient to dis- 
criminate between those who can and those who cannot 
respond to normal treatment. 



402 Educational Administration 

Professional Training for Secondary Teachers. — The 

higher the grade which one teaches, the greater the de- 
mand for scholarship and the less the demand for special 
methods. This is a partial excuse for the lack of professional 
training on the part of university and college teachers, 
and is an argument in favor of a training for secondary 
teachers which is specially suited to their needs. The in- 
dications are that for the most part secondary teachers of the 
future will receive their training in universities and colleges, 
where departments of education have been established. 
Normal schools have a sufficient field in providing teachers 
for common schools and in meeting all those demands which 
arise from the increasing variety in subject-matter and in the 
recognized need of special work for various classes of children. 

REFERENCES 

The Report on Normal Schools, N. E. A. 1899 : 836.— Green, J. M. The 
Report on Normal Schools (N. E. A.), Ed. Rev. 20: 72. — Gordy, J. P. 
Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United States, U. S. 
Bur. of Ed., Circ. of Inf. 1891 : i. — Cook, J. W., and others. Problems 
Which Confront the Normal School at the Opening of the Twentieth 
Century, Ed. 21:1. — Compayr^, G. Reform of Elementary Normal 
Schools in France, Ed. Rev. 32:357. — Chambers, W. G. Hints at a 
Course of Study for Normal Schools, Ed. 23: 141. — Burk, F. The Nor- 
mal School and the Training of Teachers, Atl. Mo. 81:769. — Bram- 
well-Hughes. Training of Teachers in America. London, 1894, Swan 
Sonnenschein. — Hanus, P. H. Educational Aims and Educational 
Values. — Parsons, J. R. Prussian Schools through American Eyes. — 
Sharpless, I. English Education. — Cook, J. W. The Value of Practice 
Teaching in Normal Schools, Ed. Rev. 3 : 267. — Hall, J. W. The Rela- 
tive Importance of Practice Teaching in the Normal, Ed. Rev. 18 : 292. — 
Harris, W. T. The Future of the Normal School, Ed. Rev. 17 : i. — Rus- 
sell, E. H. Practice Teaching in Normals, Ed. Rev. 2: 476. — Ruediger, 
W. C. Aspects of the Professional Work in State Normal Schools, Ed. 
27 : 174. — Rein, W. The Spirit of the Practice School, Ed. Rev. 14: 259. 

— Ogden, J. Our Normal Schools — What Shall They Be? Ed. 22 : 292. 

— Noss, T. B. The Problem of Practice Teaching, Ed. Rev. 14: 379. — 
Mace, W. H. The Central Defect of the Normal School, Ed. Rev. 21 : 
132. — McMurry, F. Relation of the Practice School to the Normal, N. 
E. A. 1897:713. — Snyder, Z. X. What Effect have the Normals on 
PubHc Education? N. E. A. 1897:714. — Sisson, E. O. Educational 
Courses in German Universities, Ed. 26: 283. — Salmon, L. Training of 



The Admhiistration of the Normal School 403 

Teachers in France, Ed. Rev. 20:383. — Russell, J. E. Professional 
Training of Teachers for the Higher Schools in Germany, Ed. Rev. 14 : 
17. — Nightingale, A. F. Training of Secondary School Teachers, Sch. 
Rev. 4: 129. — Dana, M. T. The New York State Normal Schools, Ed. 
Rev. 21:82; Normal Schools, C. R. I905:XLIII and 1905:755; State 
Normal Schools, C. R. 1903: 1103 and 1904: 1667. Schools for the De- 
fective Classes, C. R. 1905 : XLIX and 1347 ; Teaching of Agriculture in 
France, C. R. 1905 : XXI ; The American System of Agricultural Educa- 
tion, C. R. 1905 : XXXIII. 



CHAPTER XXII 

Administration of Vocational Education 

Definition. — Modern social economy assumes that all nor- 
mal and mature persons have callings or pursuits by means 
of which they become self-supporting and contribute their 
share to the productive activities of society. All that educa- 
tion whose means and methods are determined primarily by 
considerations of vocation rather than by one of the other 
chief aims of education — physical well-being, moral and 
social efficiency, and personal culture — may properly be 
designated vocational education. Like other forms of social 
development, vocational education can be considered in two 
large aspects which shade into each other : that which is 
unorganized and depends on the play of the natural instincts 
of imitation, play, curiosity, submission to authority, etc. ; 
and that which is organized and purposeful. Among primi- 
tive peoples and among many of the workers of the present 
there is no organized vocational training or instruction. The 
growing child, in an active social environment, " picks up " 
his training ; native interests lead him on, and imitation and 
trial finally give him a measure of skill and power. But 
for the skilled or learned callings society has devised more 
or less well-organized educational procedures. Leadership 
in war, the priesthood, and medicine; the practice of metal- 
working and textile arts ; and numerous other occupations 
famihar to the historical student illustrate lines of vocational 
education which have long had an elaborate development. 
These have been possessed by guilds or families and the 
learning has passed on from generation to generation as 
part of a cherished inheritance. The subjects taught by 
the schools, ostensibly cultural, have often assumed voca- 
tional characteristics. Thus, reading, writing, arithmetic, 
geography, and music may be made to so deliberately min- 

404 



Administration of Vocational Education 405 

ister to self-support as to become truly vocational subjects; 
and similarly, drawing, manual training, and science instruc- 
tion may have content and method determined by practical 
considerations so as to be properly defined as vocational. 
Beyond these come those forms of teaching, as in the com- 
mercial and trades subjects, in which every step is regulated 
by the necessities of the calling. 

For purposes of discussion, vocational education may be 
considered in five main divisions, which do not, however, 
constitute a rigid or mutually exclusive classification. 

a. Professional Education, embracing the learned profes- 
sions, teaching, navigation, higher phases of engineering, 
prominent activities in artistic pursuits, and perhaps the 
exclusively directive word in some other fields ; 

b. Commercial Education, fitting not merely for the more 
advanced positions, but also for the lower ones which require 
specialization and a narrow technique, including even the 
elementary stages of business arithmetic, correspondence, 
etc. ; 

c. Industrial Education, preparing for the trades, industrial 
arts, crafts, and nearly all factory processes ; 

d. Agricultural Education, fitting for the agricultural arts, 
care and breeding of animals, economic aspects of market- 
ing, etc. ; 

e. Household Arts or Domestic Education, including not 
only the specialized occupations which are followed for 
gain, but also the general homemaking arts which are 
practised by wife and mother who thus contributes her 
share to social production. 

In each of these divisions we find the beginnings of organ- 
ized education. Historically, as soon as any calling devel- 
oped a considerable body of specialized knowledge and skill, 
some form of apprenticeship grew up about it by means of 
which vocational fitness has survived. Except in the profes- 
sions, however, schools have only recently taken up prepara- 
tion for vocation ; some form of apprenticeship has been the 
general means of transmission. 

The modern movement for vocational education that may 



4o6 Educational Administration 

be carried on in schools, and for public support of these, finds 
its origins chiefly in the following causes : — 

a. The Breakdown of the Apprenticeship System. — Except 
in a few crafts, the former highly organized apprentice sys- 
tem has disappeared. The development of factory produc- 
tion, the increasing mobility of labor, the specialization of 
commercial and industrial work, and the application of sci- 
ence to industry, have all tended to diminish the effective- 
ness of apprenticeship, and to deprive society of the social 
benefits which flowed from it. 

b. The Application of Science has complicated and advanced 
productive processes in industrial, agricultural, and household 
arts to an extent which renders the older means of transmis- 
sion and learning ineffective, if not impossible. Until very 
recently, for example, in the agricultural arts, skill and knowl- 
edge sufficient for existing purposes could be passed on from 
father to son, from employer to helper ; but the application 
of science here has rendered the older methods impracticable, 
and it is evident that the successful tillage of the soil in the 
future will require the kind of scientific knowledge and devel- 
oped skill which can only be procured in specially organized 
schools and laboratories. 

c. Occupationless Classes, owing to the foregoing condi- 
tions, are apt to result from the increased numbers of boys 
and girls who have no opportunity to acquire special voca- 
tional training. These constitute a socially dangerous ele- 
ment, especially as it is felt that to some extent they are the 
victims of social injustice. All of society profits from the 
economic revolution resulting from the application of natural 
forces to production, and from scientific progress ; but in the 
process there is dislocation of producing classes, and it is 
widely felt that society must, by providing the educational 
means, fit these as well as may be for some form of produc- 
tion and self-support. 

d. International Competition. — The success or failure of 
nations which have specialized their fields of production 
depends in large measure on winning markets through supe- 
rior productive capacity. Experience has demonstrated that 



Admhtistration of Vocational Edtication 407 

the nations which first and most effectively develop voca- 
tional education will do this. Germany, Denmark, and 
Switzerland are conspicuous instances at present; but the 
example set by them is having its influence on other nations 
as well. 

e. The Adjustment of the Home to meet modern conditions 
of labor and consumption has not been sufficient, under the 
traditional methods of transmitting the household arts ; con- 
sequently, for the sake of public health and the physical 
welfare of the masses it is felt that household education of 
a special sort is no less necessary for women than are other 
forms of vocational education for men. The nurture of chil- 
dren, the economizing of consumption, and the development 
of rational standards of living are all involved in a way vital 
to social well-being. 

Relation to Public School Administration. — How far voca- 
tional education will become a part of the aims of public 
education is yet uncertain. In European countries, pro- 
fessional training has long been subsidized by philanthropy 
and by the state. In both Europe and America teachers are 
fitted for their work not only at public expense, but in some 
cases their living during the period of preparation is also 
partly met from public funds. In the Eastern states of the 
United States professional schools, usually attached to uni- 
versities, are maintained largely by philanthropy and slightly 
by state contributions; while in the Western states, the ten- 
dency is strongly toward state control and support. Through 
the endowment of higher education in agriculture and me- 
chanic arts by the national government, training for leader- 
ship in these fields has come to be a public matter ; and the 
nation also supports a variety of forms of industrial and 
domestic education for its Indian wards. For professional 
leadership in army and navy the nation also supports special 
schools. 

Besides normal school education, many American states 
now support higher commercial schools in connection with 
state universities, while a few have special schools for secon- 
dary grades of agricultural and industrial education. Where 



4o8 Educational Adm-inistration 

states undertake the education and custody of special social 
classes, like delinquent children, defectives, and dependents, 
vocational education of some sort has come to be recognized 
as an indispensable adjunct. 

Within cities and other local areas, a variety of forms of 
special or semi-vocational education have developed, usually 
taking children of the secondary school stage. Schools and 
classes for manual training, domestic arts, and commercial 
subjects are not uncommon, usually supported from local 
contributions. In the main these do not actually fit for a 
special calling, but aim to give a groundwork for vocation. 
Still less specialized are the manual training, drawing, house- 
hold arts, and commercial subjects of the elementary school, 
in the teaching of which the vocational aim is often frankly 
repudiated. But in these same municipal elementary schools 
evening classes are often found in which the vocational 
studies are more prominent. 

So far, in spite of a widespread demand, purely industrial 
schools, private or public, are uncommon. A few trades are 
taught in some private institutions. These are especially 
handicrafts which still make use of apprenticeship, among 
them being machine-shop practice, bricklaying, tinsmith- 
ing, electric-wiring, carpentry, and sign-painting. In these 
schools a portion of the apprenticeship period is passed, and 
the groundwork training for directive work is given. Some 
private schools experimenting with the teaching of trades to 
girls, in connection with dressmaking, millinery, and factory 
processes, are also found. Publicly supported schools doing 
this specialized work are still in the experimental stages. 

In some quarters the opinion is widely held that it is not 
the function of state to enter more extensively than at present 
the field of organized vocational training. Two sets of 
reasons for this position are urged: («) The state already 
trespasses more than enough on the field of private endeavor 
in educational matters, and should not, by more extensive 
systems of taxation, develop vocational training which ought 
to remain with the family, the guild, the employer, and the 
individual ; and {h) granting the desirability of public edu- 



Administration of Vocational Education 409 

cation, the state, with its cumbrous political machinery, is in 
no position to carry it on successfully and to make the in- 
numerable adjustments which are needed. Many educators 
do not yet believe that, barring certain professions and crafts, 
trades and factory processes can be successfully taught in 
schools and apart from the actual pursuit of the callings 
themselves. 

On the other hand it is claimed that, with the breakdown 
of traditional forms of training, and with the growing in- 
ability of private and philanthropic initiative to supply the 
need, it is incumbent upon the pubHc to provide instru- 
mentalities for the needed vocational instruction, even though 
this involve extensive experimentation to achieve successful 
methods. It can be shown that many of the more pro- 
gressive foreign countries have advanced far beyond the 
United States in the control and support of numerous types 
of vocational education, though to a considerable extent they 
have done this by cooperation with existing systems of ap- 
prenticeship. Varied experimentation has been required, but 
it has finally been determined that many forms of vocational 
preparation, especially where science and fine art are in- 
volved, do lend themselves to public school administration. 
The development of this education profits the individual and 
enriches society. Time only can show what are the inherent 
limitations in state management, but in the meantime social 
demands are such that all educational administrators must 
face the problems involved and preserve an open and re- 
ceptive attitude. 

So far as administrative experience with various types of 
vocational education has gone, the following principles appear 
to be fairly established : — 

a. It is a Social Right of all to have guaranteed to them by 
society some form of training which will contribute to self- 
support and productiveness. Social expediency has hitherto 
determined that the preparation of leaders should receive 
especial attention from the state, since in the lower forms of 
vocation the guilds, the family, and individual initiative were 
sufficient to produce a measurable amount of efficiency. But 



4IO Educational Administration 

the higher social expediency requires that, for the welfare of 
the individual and for social development as well, society 
undertake a broad control of these agencies. This is manifest 
in the widespread approval and support of vocational educa- 
tion among the negroes ; in state endeavor to procure, even 
at great expense, self-supporting capacity among delinquents 
and defectives ; in the extensive development of opportunities 
for technical training of workingmen in France, Germany, 
England, Belgium and elsewhere ; in the efforts of phi- 
lanthropy to aid by the establishment of special industrial 
and domestic arts schools, the children of poorer communi- 
ties; and in the efforts of employers themselves to raise, by 
means of special training, the efficiency of their workers. The 
original introduction of reading and writing, to be taught to 
all classes at public expense, was often justified on grounds 
of its contribution to self-support and industrial efficiency; 
and it is simply one of the effects of modern progress that 
these simple instruments must now be supplemented in order 
to realize the full intent of the original promoters of free 
public education. 

b. Adaptation. — But the ends of vocational education 
cannot be realized without extensive adaptation to the needs of 
various types of workers. All forms of public education 
have measurably failed in adaptation, but in the training 
which fits for occupations flexibility is indispensable. Prob- 
ably the tendency will be to recognize certain age periods as 
marking the close of the time that can be devoted to educa- 
tion exclusively by different classes of youths. For example, a 
large part of the children of the schools will leave at fourteen; 
hence, it is desirable that, as far as the vocational needs of 
this class can be realized, they should have received, between 
twelve and fourteen, some training for the wage-earning em- 
ployments which they are destined to enter. Another large 
class may be assumed to be able to continue in schools until 
the age of sixteen is reached, after which they enter on vari- 
ous grades of gainful employment. Other classes may roughly 
be assumed to enter work at eighteen and at the end of the 
college or professional school period. Furthermore, within 



Administration of Vocational Education 411 

each group such differentiation of vocational preparation must 
be made as will insure the maximum of general preparation 
for some groups of allied callings. For example, for children 
leaving at fourteen some previous preparation can have been 
had in the four distinguishable fields of commercial, industrial, 
agricultural, and household arts. For children of this age 
the preparation can be but partial at best, and it must not be 
to the exclusion of cultural education ; but some opportunities 
there should be, even if it be assumed that the continuation 
schools will be open to these children after they enter employ- 
ment. For those who begin employment at the approximate 
age of sixteen, the vocational preparation can be still more 
differentiated and specialized, even though it cannot yet 
reach, for many, the stage of rendering apprenticeship un- 
necessary. 

c. Concreteness. — A fundamental necessity in vocational 
education is that it shall connect intimately with the actual 
practices of the callings for which it fits. For some forms 
this involves the development within the schools of procedures 
resembling those carried on in the vocations themselves ; for 
others, where the school may not reproduce concrete condi- 
tions, it necessitates the close coordination of the work of the 
industry with that of the school, each performing a comple- 
mentary part, as illustrated extensively in the continuation 
teaching of German schools. Under the influence of the 
traditions of school education there is an almost inevitable 
tendency to neglect or undervalue the concrete aspect of 
vocational preparation ; but modern pedagogy insists that it 
is only in this direction that permanent results can be 
achieved. Concreteness of teaching means that vocational 
education must usually be expensive; that its teachers must 
be intimately in touch with the conditions of the market, shop, 
and field for which they aim to prepare their students; and 
that there must in many lines be a working coordination of 
practice in apprenticeship in shop and factory with the more 
abstract presentations of the school. But the experience of 
Germany is demonstrating that during the period given to 
vocational education, learning must not be subordinated un- 



412 Educational Administration 

duly to wage-earning, as is the tendency in some forms of 
continuation schools ; to the learning processes the child or 
youth must be able to give at least part of his best energy, 
and a reasonable share of time. 

d. General Courses. — Though there are yet many unsolved 
problems in connection with courses of instruction in voca- 
tional subjects, it is commonly agreed that general and undif- 
ferentiated work should precede that which is highly 
specialized and mechanical, though this by no means requires 
that the preliminary work should be of a technical character. 
The tendency of many of the industries has been in the 
direction of extreme subdivision of work ; and all-round 
training is not in demand. But as preliminary to specializa- 
tion it is believed that some training directed toward the 
general field is desirable, both for the sake of giving wide 
vocational experience, and to make later adaptation to changed 
hues of work more feasible. Before the age of sixteen, for 
most workers, a considerable part of vocational preparation, 
while concrete and practical as it can be made, should be in 
the underlying arts. There is yet a pedagogical question as 
to how far this instruction should be formal and depend on 
logical sequences, and how far it should follow natural 
interests and aim at completed products. In domestic arts 
the tendency seems strongly in the direction of making the 
work practical, and the logical aspects less dominant ; while 
in some quarters manual training in wood, metal, and other 
materials is abandoning a strictly formal order, and is tending 
to become more a course in industrial arts, with the emphasis 
on finished products and the cultivation of wide interest and 
appreciation rather than technical skill. Similar tendencies 
are found in the yet imperfectly developed agricultural edu- 
cation for younger students ; while it is only slightly in evi- 
dence in commercial training, owing to the fact, perhaps, that 
business schools, more than other types, aim to complete the 
apprenticeship stages. Roughly, it may be claimed that 
modern tendencies in general vocational education are to 
utilize some of the child's time during the years from twelve 
to sixteen for the purpose of giving experience with the tools, 



Adfyiinistration of Vocational Education 413 

materials, products, and processes of the general field into 
which he aims to go ; but that the pedagogical processes in- 
volved in achieving these ends are yet obscure and perhaps 
undervalued. Recent pedagogical developments lay much 
stress on the acquisition of fundamental interests, apprecia- 
tions, and experience with the concrete, in the expectation 
that this will provide a wide foundation for later specializa- 
tion, and will rescue the worker from the narrowing tendencies 
of that specialization. The wide and generous experience of 
the boy on the farm or in the unspecialized shop is taken as 
the model for this aim. The dangers at all points are two : 
undue abstractness and bookishness; or narrow formalism in 
concrete processes. In some instances it should be noted 
that the forms of general training here suggested have gone 
to the extent of involving their economic concomitants, as 
where children' are encouraged to consume their own prod- 
ucts or to sell them or otherwise carry the process of pro- 
duction to its social conclusion. 

SpBcialized Instruction. — But the ends of vocational edu- 
cation cannot be achieved merely through courses of general 
instruction. More and more, in view of the social and indus- 
trial needs of the time, the demand is that some special 
fitness be given to those who are to follow a special calHng. 
Whether this can be accomphshed apart from the pursuit of 
the vocation itself in its own surroundings is still a question, 
so far as many industries are concerned. It is true that com- 
mercial and trades schools have succeeded fairly well in con- 
ferring special technique in the case of some pursuits. 
Typewriting, stenography, book-keeping, bricklaying, electri- 
cal wiring, plumbing, tailoring, miUinery, and certain forms 
of machine operating can be taught in schools as experience 
shows. But these cover only a small number of the possible 
occupations into which young wage-earners must enter. 
For the others it has not yet been demonstrated that courses 
of instruction in schools, apart from the actual field of prac- 
tice itself, can give the technique that is desired. 

Many unsolved problems, apart from those implied in the 
foregoing discussion, still occupy the attention of educators 



414 Educational Administration 

studying vocational education. Among these are : {a) the 
problem of demand for this education as affected by voca- 
tional specialization, especially that found in factory pro- 
cesses ; {b) the problem of support ; {c) the problem of 
women in industry during an indeterminable period preceding 
their entrance on home making ; (d) the problem of coordinat- 
ing vocational education with the other chief forms, physical, 
social, and cultural; and {e) minor problems like those 
presented by the opposition of trades-unionism, adjustment 
to localities, and that of provision of the necessary teachers. 
a. Effects of Specialization. — Economic progress through 
the utilization of natural forces, the invention of machinery, 
and the division of labor, seems to bear varying relations 
toward vocational skill. In certain stages of economic 
development, it seems generally true that all workers must 
receive more exact preparation ; but in highly organized in- 
dustry, machinery may reach so great a degree of perfection 
that all but the purely directive workers need have no train- 
ing at all, or little. Industries vary widely in this respect, 
but some students of the subject beHeve that with the further 
perfection of machinery and the development of production 
on a large scale, the need for expertness and special training 
must diminish rather than increase. If this be true, then the 
social demand for vocational preparation will continue in the 
direction of preparing leaders only, leaving the rank and file 
of workers to find their greatest usefulness in performing 
work that requires little training. This tendency is only 
slightly manifest in the professions ; it moderately affects the 
commercial fields ; and it finds its present fullest expression 
in the industrial arts. But it must be noted that the older 
household arts have become industrial arts through economic 
development, a situation which greatly affects woman's place 
in modern industry. In some departments of agriculture the 
process has long manifested itself, though not at all in others ; 
but observers point out that with the territorial specialization 
of industry, and the application of machinery and science in 
this field, the same movement must also affect nearly all 
forms of agricultural education. 



Administration of Vocational Education 415 

If it be true that the effect of economic progress is to 
render special preparation less urgent for large numbers of 
workers, the effects, of course, are more serious socially than 
economically, since the general economic results of machin- 
ery and speciahzation are to make more abundant the wealth 
and utilities which maintain life. But modern society is not 
yet adjusted to the problem of establishing and maintaining 
a high social standard of living among people who are un- 
specialized or who have no capital of knowledge or skill along 
vocational lines. It may be said, however, that we have not 
yet any adequate data upon which to base extensive generali- 
zations regarding the momentous effects of modern vocational 
specialization. It is a problem that is fundamental to many 
phases of education, especially that which no longer con- 
siders only the production of highly efficient leaders, but 
seeks to reach the masses of workers. For the present, not- 
withstanding the questions raised, the proponents of industrial 
education assume that there are to be found types of instruc- 
tion and training which will not only increase the produc- 
tive capacity of all workers, but will react favorably on their 
culture and standard of living as well. 

b. The Problem of Support. — In general it may be said that 
vocational education of all sorts is highly expensive. Teachers 
require unusual- training; they must usually have smaller classes 
than can be found in the ordinary school ; the equipment must 
be more costly. If practice or practical exemplification are 
sought, material must be consumed, which increases the nec- 
essary outlay. While no details may be given here, it is suf- 
ficient to say that full time vocational training (as opposed to 
continuation or evening work) requires an expenditure of 
from ;^75 to ^300 per year for each student. In some 
lines of technical instruction and in trades instruction em- 
ploying materials extensively, the cost may be even greater. 
In some schools the attempt has been made to market the 
product of the class work, and with considerable pedagogic 
and financial success ; but under no circumstances consistent 
with true vocational education can this meet more than a small 
fraction of the total expense. 



41 6 Educational Administration 

But from the social standpoint, this large outlay must be 
regarded as an investment whose success is determined by the 
extent to which it promotes social well-being and the produc- 
tive capacity of the community. If, as seems demonstrated 
by the existence of schools already established in America 
and abroad, well-organized vocational education will greatly 
increase the productive capacity of workers, then it is entirely 
possible for the state or other social agencies to embark ex- 
tensively in training of this sort, confident that it will more 
than maintain itself in the long run. As yet we have no ac- 
curate measurements as to how far this is the case ; but it 
hardly requires demonstration in the case of those lines of 
industry and commerce which now depend upon the schools 
to provide their most productive workers. 

It has been customary to think that the local community 
should bear a large share of the expense of maintaining indus- 
trial education ; and this would be the natural condition if there 
returned to each community the productive results of those 
whom it educated. But, under modern conditions of production, 
labor is peculiarly mobile ; workers move by thousands not 
only from town to town, but from state to state and nation to 
nation. Feeling this, the smaller communities will more and 
more be loath to tax themselves heavily to educate workers 
who may, when reaching the age of maximum productive 
capacity, carry their capital of skill and knowledge to other 
regions. It is well known that America has profited, to a great 
extent, by the skilled workmen of other countries, notably 
England and Germany. However much we should encourage 
local patriotism in the support of vocational education, it is 
also well to admit the advantages of a distribution of the bur- 
den. Already the national government contributes the major 
part of the cost of agricultural education in the United States ; 
and it also contributes quite extensively to the higher techni- 
cal training, in schools of engineering and mechanic arts. 
Social economy will doubtless demand that the states as wholes 
be made units for many sorts of vocational education, at least 
to the extent of part of the cost. However justifiable high 
local taxation may be for elementary education and for sec- 



Administration of Vocational Education 417 

ondary education of a cultural sort, it cannot be wholly de- 
fended when we confront the larger problems of vocational 
education. Ultimately, the larger areas, even including the 
nation, will contribute an increasing share, since the benefits 
distribute themselves widely. 

c. The Problem of Women in Industry. — Under primitive 
economic conditions the home was woman's workshop, and 
early marriage meant continuance in the industries in which 
she had already served her apprenticeship.^ Modern economic 
progress has deprived the home, in large part, of the functions 
which provided the occupations of women ; and altered social 
conditions have deferred the period of entering on marriage 
and home making. The large majority of the daughters of 
wage-earners of the present time find it desirable and necessary 
to spend the years from fifteen or sixteen to twenty or twenty-five 
as producers, while probably living at the parental home. What- 
ever defects the system may have, it is impossible to deny that 
it is the best under present conditions. These girls cannot be 
producers by remaining at home ; the modern division of 
labor and factory processes have rendered that impossible. 
To remain at home as non-producers and lacking systematic 
employment is not only anti-social, but tends to personal 
degeneration. Early marriage is opposed by all modern con- 
ditions making for a higher standard of living. 

Hence has arisen the modern invasion of industry by 
women. From the standpoint of vocational education they 
present peculiar problems. Under primitive conditions any 

^ " The richness of development which came to a woman's life when she was a 
producer, when she spun the flax and wove the household linen, when she 
ground the corn and cured the meats for the household table, when she made 
the candles and soap, and the numerous articles necessary to the running of the 
house, is no longer possible for her under modern conditions. The keeping of 
the home was then a science and an art. It gave the woman an enviable place 
in the development of modern life and industry. It was the natural field of her 
activities, and in her immediate environment she found the forces which gave 
her unlimited opportunity for creation and self-expression. Her place in industry 
was unquestioned ; she was the centre and soul of it, and from, the results of 
her efforts have come many of the largest and most prosperous industries of the 
present day." — Florence M. Marshall, in Bulletin No. 4 of The Nat. Soc. for 
Prom, of Industrial Ed. 
2E 



4i8 Educational Administration 

education acquired or given simply furthered the usefulness 
of the woman when she became a home maker in her turn ; 
but the modern division of labor is such that education for 
a particular line of industry or pursuit not only does not 
qualify for home-making arts, but may tend directly to pre- 
vent their acquisition. It is not yet in evidence that society 
can afford to have these women continue in the industries 
in large numbers after they marry and undertake to rear 
children. On the other hand, there is a widespread con- 
viction that so important are the arts of home making, care 
of children, etc., that they require special education in their 
turn, to which at least part of the time during adolescence 
should be given. Furthermore, owing to the fact that women 
must remain, on the average, but a few years in specialized 
industrial callings, it seems unnecessary and perhaps impos- 
sible to give them the prolonged apprenticeship training which 
is for specialized men workers the most necessary prepa- 
ration. 

From the social point of view the problem is one of finding 
for women as far as practicable those specialized callings 
which can be entered with comparatively little preparation, 
and which will not too greatly interfere with the later home- 
making capacities, either through deleterious effects on health 
or through depriving the girl of all opportunity to learn some- 
thing of household arts. Obviously, it is preeminently the 
function of legislation and social custom to protect women in 
the industries by limiting hours of labor, prohibiting physically 
harmful work, night labor, etc., and by promoting those con- 
ditions which will preserve the physical and moral well-being 
of working girls. On no other conditions can society maintain 
itself wholesome. The need is greater in the case of girl 
labor, because of the lack of leaders of their own sex and the 
greater tendency of industry to injuriously exploit unskilled 
and unorganized workers competing senselessly against each 
other for employment. 

For this field of vocational education it would seem that 
the years from fourteen to sixteen are peculiarly valuable. 
During these years the girls can be taught certain funda- 



Admmistration of Vocational Education 4.19 

mental processes, can be acquainted with the conditions of 
the market, and can have interest and elemental knowledge 
of the home arts stimulated. Properly prepared, they can 
then enter industry somewhat capable of avoiding its pitfalls, 
and of preserving themselves physically and morally sound 
in their contact with the gigantic industrial processes of the 
time. On the other hand, it is conceivable that society may 
refuse to give young women an extensive and costly vocational 
education, in view of the fact that their natural field, after a 
few years, is not in industry, but in the home. 

d. Problem of Correlation with Cultural Education. — In the 
minds of many people, the chief objection to vocational edu- 
cation is that it tends to monopolize all the effort of the learner 
and to become frankly utilitarian. In practice it has often 
been found that vocational preparation, either through ap- 
prenticeship or in schools, has excluded opportunities for 
culture or civic training. Educators, especially, feel that they 
must claim as long a time as possible for the purposes of a 
so-called liberal education. It is felt that the college period, 
or much of it, should be saved from the narrowing tendencies 
of purely professional preparation ; for those who enter the 
higher walks of commerce and industry, the endeavor is to 
have the entire secondary school period devoted to the ends 
of liberal education ; and, similarly, in the case of those who 
do not go to the high school at all, there is the greatest un- 
willingness that any of the elementary school time should be 
appropriated to the more utilitarian pursuits. It has thus re- 
mained true that at any given time education is apt to con- 
sciously pursue but one of the main ends ; for a time it is 
almost exclusively liberal ; then, when the youth enters the 
trade or business school, or goes into apprenticeship, cultural 
education is almost wholly neglected, and effort is concentrated 
on practical pursuits. 

From the standpoint of social economy it seems probable 
that the tendencies described above are wrong ; that, for the 
sake of integral development, all the valid aims of education 
should be kept in view during the entire preparatory period. 
Society demands that each adult, within the limits of his 



420 Educational Administration 

capacity, shall be physically well, shall be vocationally 
capable, shall have civic and moral insight and motive, and 
shall keep alive some cultural or aesthetic interests. But to 
insure this all-round development, it is essential that each 
part of it receive more or less continuous attention ; it may 
well be doubted, for example, whether it is wise that a youth 
of sixteen should devote himself exclusively to any kind of 
vocational preparation, to the exclusion of all social and cul- 
tural interests ; but there is also reason to suppose that much 
of our secondary education, which utterly ignores vocational 
considerations during the formative period, not less seriously 
handicaps its students. 

Obviously, the solution of the problem lies in the adoption 
of means whereby, while any one phase of education is tem- 
porarily given first place, the other phases shall not be 
neglected. Even quite early some attention should be given 
to vocational preparation, even if it extend only to the degree 
of giving a basis for intelligent choice ; and when the time 
comes that it should receive major consideration, the effort 
should be to prevent it from absorbing the time and effort 
which should go to developing physical well-being, expanding 
social capacity, and keeping alive some lines of personal 
culture. Sometimes, indeed, these may be closely integrated 
with the vocational work ; but whether or not that is feasible, 
they may not be neglected. 

We find at present the beginnings of a policy of integral 
education in various types of schools. In the best institutions 
for negroes, like Hampton and Tuskegee, the fundamental 
aim is vocational, in that means and methods are adopted to 
fit the blacks for the largest sphere of vocational capacity in 
their environment; but at no point are other lines of develop- 
ment ignored ; time is reserved for physical training, a variety 
of studies and practices fitting for civic life are kept up, and 
no one can be found who is not doing something to keep aHve 
aesthetic and intellectual interest of the kind that promises 
personal culture. Similarly, in schools that have recently 
been founded in New York and Boston to teach trades to 
working girls of from fourteen to sixteen years of age ; great 



Administration of Vocational Education 421 

as was the temptation to confine their efforts to vocational 
preparation, it has nevertheless been found desirable to include 
in the programme studies and practices which conduce to phys- 
ical efficiency, and others which make for social and cultural 
power within the limits of the lives of these girls. 

In seeking to accomplish this end, however, the great 
temptation besetting the public schools is to make the social 
and cultural education of a remote and unfunctioning kind. 
This tradition gives us the anomaly of students in mechanic 
arts high schools studying Latin and ancient history, while 
neglecting the social and cultural possibilities that lie near to 
them. The problem of finding for each class of people 
primarily pursuing vocational studies the social and cultural 
pursuits which will most effectively function for them is by 
no means solved ; but at present the most needed factor in 
the situation is the disposition to reject the purely traditional 
lines of cultural and civic training, unless their significance is 
manifest. Possibly it may be better for educational progress 
that schools primarily devoted to vocational education should 
be established, with the expectation that eventually, as in case 
of the girls' schools before alluded to, they will add a measure 
of social and cultural work of a functioning kind, rather than 
that the attempt should be made to develop this vocational 
work in situations where the traditions of an older education 
survive to the extent of defeating the legitimate ends of 
modern education. Certainly if in American mechanic 
arts schools, business schools, and schools of household edu- 
cation, the vocational aim must be preserved simply as an in- 
cident to a traditional liberal education, the schools may not 
be called vocational ; on the other hand, it is equally unde- 
sirable that schools should grow so highly specialized as to 
make no effort to continue during the period of vocational 
preparation some social and cultural development of the kind 
which will function in the lives of those being trained. 

A phase of this problem is found in the question as to 
whether, for social reasons, vocational schools of various 
sorts should be established as separate institutions, uncon- 
nected with the schools of traditional liberal education. 



42 2 Educational Administration 

From an ideal standpoint, it would seem better that in 
any community there should be found one large plant 
with libraries, shops, classrooms, and other educational 
facilities, so that pupils from twelve to eighteen could find 
a large variety of educational opportunities, some primarily 
cultural and social, others primarily vocational, and adapted 
to various callings for boys and girls. Within this institution 
would be, to a large extent, social equality ; but the programmes 
of various students would differ widely ; some might take 
mainly shop work, with one or more cultural branches 
added ; others might take primarily the liberal subjects, 
with a minor amount of domestic or industrial study. 

On the other hand, it must be admitted that attempts to 
erect schools of this sort have sometimes failed, especially in 
the matter of vocational education. The practical subjects, 
when introduced, have soon become formalized and of little 
service for actual vocation. The cultural subjects taken by 
students who must soon go to work have been non-functioning, 
owing to the prevalence of standards of work determined 
by the students who are preparing for college. 

Consequently, many educators, and especially people 
looking at the matter from the broader civic point of view, 
have felt that it would be better to establish separate schools 
for particular lines of vocational pursuit, and to allow them 
to first develop their means of vocational education freely 
and to the utmost, with the expectation that cultural and 
social phases, correlated with the vocational education, will 
then evolve. The immediate objection to this plan is that 
social classes will tend to form. Between various social 
classes in America there is already too much misunder- 
standing and lack of sympathy for the good of a democracy. 
If vocational schools for various types of callings are set 
up so far apart that the members of each do not come 
in contact, do not in any way share the same social and 
cultural opportunities, so far as these are afforded by public 
schools, then there is real danger that class differences may 
grow. Hence the public is confronted with the dilemma: 
shall these schools be separately established for the probably 



Administration of Vocational Education 423 

greater efficiency that will result, or shall efficiency, at least 
of a temporary sort, be somewhat sacrificed to the need of 
keeping the future professional and industrial classes in 
contact with each other during the impressionable period 
of youth? 

e. Problems of Teachers. — The teacher in vocational educa- 
tion needs two distinct kinds of preparation : he must on 
the one hand know the work he teaches in its concrete 
and practical aspects ; and he must know the general 
pedagogic arts, including knowledge of children and youth. 
Teachers with the one or the other of these measures of 
fitness are available, but not many with their suitable 
combination, and it seems difficult to provide such teachers. 
In foreign countries most success has been obtained in 
taking men from the trades, from commerce, and from agri- 
culture, and giving them as much of pedagogical fitness 
as possible. In America, so far as this kind of education 
has developed, it has rather tended to take people first 
trained as teachers and then expect them to acquire the 
practical arts they attempt to teach. Neither system is 
productive of satisfactory results, and in time measures 
must be devised to combine the two kinds of preparation. 
To do this will require that the prospective teacher not 
only keep closely in touch with the actual field of vocation 
which he attempts to teach, but that he have even served 
a due apprenticeship in it. At the same time, he must have 
studied the arts of teaching which are measurably the same 
for all kinds of instruction, so that he may economize the 
time of himself and students. 

Minor Problems. — Among the lesser problems of vocational 
education, the first in acuteness, at present, is that of making 
adjustments to the requirements of organized labor. In 
various trades and industries, especially, the workers have 
organized to further their class interests. Among other 
functions, they control the matter of apprenticeship, fixing 
numbers, length of service, etc. These unions have at 
times manifested hostility towards trade schools, fearing that 
these would either turn out large numbers of workmen to 



424 Educational Administration 

disturb the labor market, that their training would lower 
the standards of the trade, or that the graduates would be 
unfriendly to the principles of the organization. In Germany, 
and to some extent in England, industrial education has 
largely made peace with the unions, but developments have 
not yet reached that stage in America. It can hardly be 
doubted, however, that if vocational education, either general 
or specific, represents a positive social demand, in time 
the unionized workmen of the country will take the larger 
social point of view. In time their cooperation should be 
felt in adjusting the standards for special forms of education; 
and, on the other hand, the schools, in their attention to 
social education, must learn to see clearly the significance 
of the union movement in maintaining standards of living 
and production, to the end that its social contributions may 
be sympathetically understood. 

A more persistent problem is found in the necessity of 
adapting vocational education to local conditions. America 
has not yet developed the territorial specialization of industry 
which prevails abroad, and socially there is a widespread 
desire that diversification of industries may continue to pre- 
vail. But the education of workers requires specialization of 
types of instruction on grounds of economy. In communities 
of diversified industry this may prove very difficult. Possibly 
separate schools like those now established for professional 
training will have to be set up, to which students may go for 
specialized training. The larger cities, of course, have 
peculiar opportunities in this direction. 



REFERENCES 

(Selected from Bulletin No. 2 of the National Society for the Promotion 
of Industrial Education, New York.) 

Adams and Sunxner. Labor Problems. New York, 1905. — Addams, 
Jane. Democracy and Social Ethics. New York, 1905. — Bolen, Geo. L. 
Getting a Living. New York, 1903. — Creasey, C. H. Technical Train- 
ing in Evening Schools. London, 1905. — Dyer, H. The Evolution of 
Industry. New York, 1905. — Howard, E. D. The Cause and Extent of 
Recent Industrial Progress in Germany. Boston, 1907. — Shadwell, A. 



Administration of Vocational Education 425 

Industrial Efficiency. New Yorlc, igo6 (2 vols). — Ware, F. Educational 
Foundations of Trade and Industry. New York, 1901. — Balliet, T. M. 
Manual, Trade, and Technical Education, Proc. N. E. A. 1903:65. — 
Bemis, E. W. Relation of Trades-unions to Apprentices, Quar. Jour, 
of Economics, 6:76. — Chamberlain, A. H. The Demand for Trade 
Schools: From an Educator's Point of View, Proc. N. E. A. 1903:602. 
— Hanus, P. H. The Technical Continuation Schools of Munich, Sch. 
Rev. 13:678. — Herrick, C. A. The Place of Applied Education, Ed. 
Rev. 31:180. — Higgins, M. P. Education for the Trades: From the 
Standpoint of the Manufacturer, Proc. N. E. A. 1903:597. — Hubbard, 
C. W. Industrial Education, Sch. Rev. 15:391. — Perry, C. C. Recent 
Legislation on Primary Technical Education in France, Rep. Com. of Ed., 
1897-1898 : 709. — Pritchett, H. S. Industrial and Technical Training in 
Popular Education, Ed. Rev. 23:281. — Russell, J. E. The Trend in 
American Education, Ed. Rev. 32 : 28. — Sayward, W. H. The Attitude 
of Trade-unions towards Trade Schools, Proc. N. E. A. 1903:620. — 
Skeffington, H. J. Industrial Education, Sch. Rev. 15 : 382. — Vanderlip, 
F. A. The Economic Importance of Trades Schools, Proc. N. E. A. 
1905: 141. — Woods, R. A. The Basis of an Efficient Education, Sch. 
Rev. 15:333. — Woolman, Mary S. The Manhattan Trade School for 
Girls, Ed. Rev. 30: 178. 

Bulletin of U. S. Bur. of Labor, no. 67 (Conditions of entrance to the 
principal trades) ; Bulletin of the U. S. Bur. of Education, No. 2 for 1906 
(German views of American education, with especial reference to indus- 
trial development) ; Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1895-1896: 1215 (Indus- 
trial education in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland) ; U. S. Department 
of Commerce and Labor, Vol. 33 of Special Consular Reports, Washington, 
1905 (Industrial education in Germany) ; Report of the Massachusetts 
Commission on Industrial and Technical Education, New York (Teach- 
ers College), 1906; U. S. Commissioner of Labor, 17th Annual Report, 
Washington, 1902 (Trade and technical education) ; (see also files of 
Manual Training Magazine, Chicago). 



CHAPTER XXIII 

The Administration of Physical Education 

Definition. — Attention has previously been called to a pos- 
sible fourfold division of education which should prove help- 
ful in adjusting means and determining the relative importance 
of various educative procedures. These four chief aims are 
physical, vocational, social, and cultural. Physical education 
broadly includes all of the means which contribute to physical 
well-being, comprising nurture and a favorable environment 
for growth, exercise, and work, as well as corrective and 
curative activities. The attainment of the ends of physical 
education implies not only control of the physical environment 
of the child, but the deliberate formation of habits, the impart- 
ing of knowledge of hygiene, and the stimulation of the 
better ideals of physical efficiency. 

The Relative Importance of physical education in this broad 
sense is such that it should undoubtedly be given first place 
in a completely integrated scheme of social economy. In the 
evolution of schools, there was first taken up those educational 
functions which the home could least well perform, and 
naturally, therefore, school education has been traditionally 
identified with cultural education, because the home, the 
church, and the shop long retained their efficiency as special 
educational agencies. But it can hardly be questioned that 
physical, vocational, and social education are, in the order 
named, more important than cultural education in the narrow 
sense of that word. It must be noted that what are called the 
elementary branches more or less underlie all the above 
divisions ; and that what is called mental discipline, and the 
development of the scientific attitude, is ultimately common to 
all, and is not in any sense the exclusive possession of cultural 

426 



The Administratioii of Physical Education 427 

education. Hence, in so far as the administration of public 
schools takes account of physical education, it should attach 
to it more importance than to any other division as far as 
attitude and appreciation are concerned. 

Cooperation with other Agencies. — A fundamental principle 
in public education is that it should not perform those functions 
which can be safely left to private or semi-private agencies. 
Physical education, broadly speaking, is still largely a function 
of the home and the community, apart from school. But the 
school is to-day the one chief agency which represents all the 
people ; it therefore devolves upon it to coordinate various 
agencies, to the end that the importance of physical education 
shall be appreciated and its demands be met. For it must be 
recognized that, whatever the obligations of the home and 
other agencies in this matter, these are often met very im- 
perfectly and sometimes not at all ; in which cases, the school 
must proceed to supply the need. But it should do this in a 
scientific manner, so as to preserve the efficiency of other 
agencies. For example, the nurture of the child is primarily 
a matter for the home ; but in case the school receives chil- 
dren improperly nourished it is under obligations, now gen- 
erally recognized, to see that this need is met. But it must 
do so by first bringing all possible pressure to bear upon 
agencies which have traditionally been charged with this 
responsibility ; and only in the last resort should it perform 
this duty itself. 

The Prominence of Physical Education in the school system 
has been steadily increasing in recent years, for the following 
reasons : ia) the conditions of modern, and especially of 
urban, life require increasing attention to matters of play, 
nurture, prevention of disease, scientific methods of cure, as 
the price of physical efficiency ; (<^) modern specialization 
of industry has rendered the home and other agencies far 
less effective as factors in the physical development of a 
growing body than was formerly the case; {c) the school 
has come to claim a large share of the time and energy of 
the growing child and becomes therefore, after the home, the 
most important fact in his environment and the agency which 



428 Educatio7tal Administration 

makes greatest exactions on his growing powers ; {a) the 
great increase of scientific knowledge in recent years with 
regard to the conservation of health and the increase of 
physical efficiency has imposed a special obligation upon 
the school. 

Scope of Physical Education embraces : {a) the provision 
of favorable environment for natural growth ; {b) nurture ; 
{c) regulation of work, exercise, play, etc. ; id) correction of 
defects ; {e) instruction in hygiene ; (/) development of 
ideals of physical efficiency ; and {g) socializing of physical 
power and knowledge. The part that the school may play 
in this scheme must be determined by what other agencies 
actually do or can be induced under suggestion and com- 
pulsion to do. A large part of the work of the school must 
consist in evoking the cooperation of other agencies. 

A Favorable Environment for the natural processes of growth 
embraces not merely the acknowledged factors of air, sun- 
light, cleanliness, companionship, and protection from the 
elements, but also many others which have only tardily re- 
ceived recognition. Modern science finds that space and 
incentives for abundance of spontaneous play, freedom from 
excessive noise, relief from too incessantly varied stimulation, 
and opportunities for social expression are also vital elements. 
Next in importance is the provision during time of work and 
regulated activities of surroundings which shall not prove 
detrimental. Under this head must be considered such 
matters as ventilation, warming, seating, stair climbing, 
lighting, and the other conditions of a material sort surround- 
ing work. Less recognized, but equally important in its 
physical effects, is the social environment made by schools. 
The teacher is a large factor in this, and according to his 
character and ideals may do much to harm or benefit the 
child. 

Playgrounds and other opportunities for spontaneous play 
have come to be regarded as indispensable. Responsibility 
for providing them is being increasingly assumed by the 
school boards, and there can be little doubt that with the 
fuller development of the machinery of public education, pro- 



The Administration of Physical Education 429 

vision will be made for ample playgrounds and that super- 
vision will also be provided. Under present conditions in 
American cities society is at a great disadvantage in this 
matter. In the expansion of population, land has been sel- 
dom reserved, and can now be obtained only at great cost. 
In many large cities the park system has been laid out 
with little reference to provision for the opportunities of 
play, but rather for driving or walking. Undoubtedly 
the ideal park system is that which provides open spaces, 
with trees and shrubbery, in long belts or strips, not farther 
than three or four blocks from any city dwellers. If land 
were laid out in this fashion, with special areas equipped for 
out-of-door gymnastics, city children would frequent these 
spaces rather than the streets. Playgrounds adjacent to 
schoolhouses are valuable, and the modern tendency is to insist 
on their provision in connection with new schools. Play- 
grounds in basements or on roofs are necessary where land is 
expensive, but it is with difficulty that they can be made to 
supply needs so satisfactorily as vacant areas devoted to park 
and recreation purposes alone. Americans must hope that 
improvement in means of transportation, and the building up 
of manufacturing enterprises in villages remote from cities, 
will both relieve congestion and provide the necessary terri- 
tory for the development on a larger scale than has been 
heretofore realized of natural parks wherein children may find 
a true play environment. 

The School as Physical Environment. — Much attention 
has been in recent years given to the injurious effects of 
wrong school conditions on physical well-being. Matters of 
ventilation, heating, lighting, sitting, and climbing have re- 
ceived attention, and improvement here has been fairly 
marked. At present theory is considerably ahead of prac- 
tice, so that if boards of education and superintendents 
choose to procure the services of experts in providing ap- 
proved facilities, it is not at all difficult to find them. But 
some other factors of school environment have not received 
equal attention. In cities large schools are so located as to 
suffer constantly from noise. They may be near street-car or 



430 Educational Administration 

railway tracks, or the adjacent streets may be paved with 
materials which do not serve to deaden sound. The proxim- 
ity to the school of shops dealing in food-stuffs and stimu- 
lants that are injurious to children is a phase of environmental 
influence that has not yet received sufficient attention. 

The Teacher's Influence on the physical well-being of the 
child has also received as yet insufficient study. It cannot be 
doubted that teachers vary greatly in their unconscious capac- 
ity of either taxing the child unduly or of supplying a sooth- 
ing atmosphere. In elementary schools pupils are under one 
teacher five or more hours daily. The nervous, highly strung 
instructor produces a most unfavorable physical effect, as may 
also teachers who are overstrenuous, or who administer work 
injudiciously. The situation is complex, and our knowledge 
in the premises insufficient except for tentative action. But 
it is one to which supervisors and medical inspectors might 
well devote increased attention, and it might well be made 
the subject of considerable study on the part of those who 
train teachers. A discriminating supervision, by the use of 
scholarship, disciplinary, and health records, should prove 
able to detect the presence of teachers who operate unfavor- 
ably on the physical well-being of their pupils. If facts of 
this nature could once be adequately estabHshed and certain 
criteria developed, it would be possible to enable teachers to 
make the necessary adjustments themselves, within the limits 
of fixed temperament and habit. 

Social Environment. — In addition to the teacher the chil- 
dren of the school constitute a social environment about each 
other which plays a large part in physical development. In 
two respects this is artificial from the standpoint of the social 
surroundings to which children in their evolutionary develop- 
ment have been accustomed : the group is larger and more 
complicated in its activities ; and the social movement or 
action is apt to be artificial and intense. The amount of 
social restraint necessary in schoolrooms and large schools 
doubtless has deep-seated physical consequences. At pres- 
ent all that our knowledge permits us to demand is that peri- 
ods of social relaxation be not infrequent, and that teachers 



The Administration of Physical Education 431 

be induced to provide opportunities for the occasional expres- 
sion of social life on a natural basis. Under the best concep- 
tions of school discipline now prevalent, and especially where 
considerable social and cooperative activities enter into the 
programme of the school, it is probable that social conditions 
result in better physical growth. 

The Effect of the School on Home Environment may, under 
progressive educational conditions, be very marked. As it 
assumes increasingly the responsibility of diagnosing the 
physical condition of the children, unfavorable home condi- 
tions will come into view and by various means of instruc- 
tion (to be discussed later) it can aid in improvement. In 
one direct respect the school may save the child from un- 
favorable environmental conditions at home, through its con- 
trol of his study. Under wrong theories of pedagogy the 
school has at various times imposed upon school children 
outside tasks without being able to control the conditions under 
which the tasks have been performed. The result has been 
that the child has been deprived of otherwise available op- 
portunities for physical exercise and social relaxation and 
has been obliged to continue his school work under most dis- 
advantageous conditions of air, light, bodily posture, and 
irritating interruptions. So far as average homes are con- 
cerned, home study can be imposed in large amount only at 
the risk of having it done with injury to the child. Better 
that the school, with its favorable environment of light, work- 
ing material and quiet, should give the child additional time 
in which to finish necessary studies.^ 

The Day's Programme. — At present there is much uncer- 
tainty as to the proper adjustment of the day's programme with 
reference to its physical effect. In the majority of American 
schools tradition has fixed a relatively short school day, in- 
frequent intermissions, and a short noon-hour. This gives 
considerable time for play outside of school hours, but does 
not provide for the long noon rest that is found in German 
schools. In not a few secondary schools the day has been 

^ Recently in the crowded quarters of New York City the schoolrooms have 
been opened even at night for purposes of study. 



432 Educational Administration 

still further shortened by the development of the half-day 
session, or one-session plan. This concentrates the time of 
recitation, and allows a considerable part of the day for prep- 
aration. No satisfactory study seems yet to have been made of 
the physical results of these various plans. In some quarters 
it is believed that because of the increase in manual and ob- 
jective work, consequent upon the introduction of industrial, 
domestic, and agricultural arts as phases of school curricula, 
and because of the control of physical recreation, the school 
day will have to be considerably lengthened, but that the 
parts of it will be taken up with work making essentially dif- 
ferent demands upon the pupil. For example, the programme 
of one pupil might be so arranged as to give forenoons 
largely or exclusively to shop, field, and laboratory work, and 
the afternoons to class recitation and "book" work. For 
another pupil, owing to the necessity of keeping a school 
plant constantly employed, this programme would have to be 
reversed. It is probable that the importance of alternating 
different kinds of school work so as to prevent undue strain 
along one line is not at all properly appreciated as yet. 

Physical Adjuncts of School Life. — Not only must the 
school seek to preserve about the child a favorable environ- 
ment for natural expression and also surroundings and con- 
ditions that will not work too great harm during the process 
of organized education, but it must also within limits control 
numerous adjuncts which make for physical well-being. 
Mention can only be made of food as one of these. In 
extreme cases the school may assume the functions of the 
home in providing this if it can be shown that it is indispen- 
sable to the educational well-being of the child. More im- 
portant, the school can cooperate with the home, even to the 
point of employing compulsory measures, to the end that 
parents provide sufficient nurture for their children. We 
have hardly yet more than the beginnings of this correlation, 
but the existence of medical inspection, the school nurse, 
and the school visitor will eventually produce these comple- 
mentary features of school work. Much of this cooperation 
can be brought about very simply through the processes of 



The Administration of Physical Education 433 

instruction in hygiene. With the development of cooking 
and sanitation as phases of school work for all girls and the 
better training of teachers in matters of hygiene there can be 
made to grow up standards of healthful living which will be 
made the common possession of all children in the schools. 
To a large extent this condition of wide appreciation of stand- 
ards has been already brought about in public education in 
the matters of external dress and cleanliness. 

School Baths. — It is probable that the school system will 
go much farther in providing free bathing facilities than 
in giving food, especially as the former do not seem to impair 
powers of self-help as does the latter. In the European 
schools we find baths made a frequent adjunct of public 
school life. Their importance as a means of promoting physi- 
cal health and well-being cannot be denied ; and they consti- 
tute one of the means by which the school can serve the 
entire community, for there is no inherent reason why school 
bathing facihties should not be at the disposal of the adult 
portion of the community outside of school hours and during 
the vacations. 

Directed Play and Games. — While it is of first importance 
that facilities should be provided for all children to express 
themselves in spontaneous play, it is also desirable that much 
in the way of physical development be obtained by means of 
directed play and organized means of physical expression. 
Under crowded conditions and when affected by social stim- 
ulation, it is found, for example, that competitive games in- 
volving groups become too highly specialized and strenuous 
and that supervision and even direction is necessary. Many 
city children hardly know how to play, especially when the 
mingling of nationalities has broken down folk traditions of 
games. For these not only direction but even compulsion 
may be necessary to procure the desired play activity. The 
provision of adequately trained supervision will be a con- 
siderable expense to the community, but the cost will be 
repaid many fold in the increased productive capacity of 
the children resulting. The relative amount of physical well- 
being to be achieved by these means is large, probably much 



434 Educational Administration 

more than that accomplished by ordinary gymnasium prac- 
tice. Games, athletics, swimming, and dancing are the spe- 
cial forms of controlled physical development now beyond 
the experimental stage. In all of these it will be noted that 
a considerable social element is involved and there is every 
reason to believe that the conservation of this social adjunct 
is an important feature in realizing the best ends of physical 
education. 1 

It must be recognized that there is a pathology of play 
and games, which it is the function of directors of physical 
education to counteract. America has witnessed the devel- 
opment, under social approval, of specialized athletics to an 
extent which would indicate the belief that vicarious exercise 
were possible. This specialization has had the harmful effect 
of making games complex and difficult and of imposing such 
high standards that only individuals of unusual powers are 
incited to take active part. The result is that those most in 
need of physical exercise fail to find opportunity or incentive ; 
and those who do take part, driven by social appreciation, 
are apt to give to physical exercise an unwise amount of 
energy. It has been demonstrated that athletics are pur- 
sued excessively in many educational institutions and that 
the physical results are bad. 

Gymnastics. — A still more controlled part of physical edu- 
cation is found in gymnastics and calisthenics, in which the 
aims are two : corrective, in the sense of giving special or 
local exercise for the purpose of supplying deficiencies of 
strength or development and also to counteract the probable 
evil effects of prolonged confinement to seats or other con- 
stricted positions ; and developmental in the sense of body 
and health building and in giving ability in coordination and 
movement which is believed to be of physical value. Gym- 
nastics have the value of being individual and of effecting a 

1 No sufficient attention has yet been given to the practicability of carrying on 
a large part of this education out of doors, especially in village communities and 
in mild climates. Large secondary schools in Southern and Western states re- 
gard well-equipped gymnasia as necessary prerequisites for physical education; 
but for most purposes a small equipment in school yards would meet every 
purpose much more effectively. 



The Admhiistration of Physical Education 435 

large amount of physical exercise in limited time ; of not 
requiring extensive room and outdoor space ; and of being 
capable of application to special local needs. For example, 
two or three minutes may be devoted at frequent intervals 
to breathing exercises as a phase of calisthenics. The value 
of this comes from the fact that the school Ufe and occupa- 
tions fail to provide the necessary stimulus to deep breathing, 
and constricted postures may even lead eventually to imper- 
fect development of the organs of respiration. Again, school 
life offers little inducement for the development of shoulder 
and arm muscles ; calisthenics and gymnastics may measur- 
ably supply the need. As a means of physical education it 
is quite possible that gymnastics have been overrated, as 
against games and outdoor exercise carried on under direc- 
tion. On the other hand, classroom calisthenics have not 
been used sufficiently. Both should be regarded as supple- 
mentary for correctional purposes to the much wider and 
more extensive opportunity for physical development through 
exercise, games, and manual work ; and all forms must be 
integrated under competent direction which takes account 
not merely of school conditions but home conditions as well. 
Instruction in Hygiene. — Recent years have seen a wide- 
spread interest in developing as a part of the regular cur- 
riculum such instruction as would minister to the knowledge 
aspect of the conservation and development of physical effi- 
ciency. This instruction has not always realized its full 
purpose, owing to untrained teachers and bad pedagogy. 
Frequently it has not connected with the actual lives of the 
children educated, and has concerned itself with matters 
beyond their range. While all instruction in hygiene should 
proceed from teachers with as good scientific training as 
practicable, nevertheless it is not desirable to attempt to 
teach the science of physiology to children. To some extent 
instruction in hygiene may be correlated with biology, nature- 
study, and domestic science and art ; but it should have as its 
principal organization assembled information regarding the 
art of preserving a sound and effective body. As far as 
practicable material from the environing life should be util- 



436 Educational Administration 

ized and instruction should be informal, though having a 
definite amount of time assigned to it. It should be based 
on cooperation with the home, and should seek to advance 
the home in those matters of hygiene in which the science 
of the age is ahead of the knowledge and traditions of 
the home. Practical applications of bacteriology, scien- 
tific conclusions as to effects of stimulants, practical infor- 
mation regarding dietetics, instruction regarding contagion 
and the care of the sick — all of these are topics which 
should not only be dealt with in the instruction in hygiene 
which the school gives, but constant recurrence should be 
had to them in talks, illustrated lectures, and experiments 
where practicable, until educators may be assured that each 
child has at least been well informed within the limits of his 
comprehension and ability to apply his knowledge as to the 
known facts of health preservation. Similar lines of instruc- 
tion regarding growth of strength, formation of physical 
habits, counteracting the harmful effects of certain kinds 
of work, and methods of fully utilizing energy should be 
developed. 

Ideals of Physical Efficiency. — Instruction in hygiene and 
the arts of living well leads to knowledge but not necessarily 
to the ideals which largely serve as motives to action. The 
production of right ideals in this field is to a considerable 
extent a matter of special pedagogical method. It is well 
known that the most effective stimulation of physical ideals 
has been among peoples dedicated to the military arts. In 
the life of this class not only the conscious demands of the 
environment, but all the suggestion of song, story, history, 
painting, and statuary, and personal hero worship is made to 
contribute to the end of stimulating the ideals of and motives 
for physical prowess. Athletics produce in a considerable 
number of the boys of our generation similar ideals, but these 
often seem insufficient, as they do not lead to permanent 
development, nor do they function in the broadest concep- 
tions of health and physical efficiency ; they are incomplete 
and one-sided. But a large aim of physical education is the 
production of ideals of this kind on a broad foundation. 



The Administration of Physical Education 437 

Disease, lack of ability to work, physical weakness, malforma- 
tion, must all be made matters of reproach, and the opposite 
qualities made matters of admiration. There is a pedagogy 
by which this can be accomplished, through the proper utiliza- 
tion of play, of instruction, of story, of painting, and of song, 
but we have as yet only slightly developed this pedagogic 
art. Because teachers themselves are not yet possessed of 
these ideals, they cannot develop them in their pupils. Be- 
cause business men and workers have low ideals or inactive 
ones as to physical efficiency, the environment of the child 
contributes little beyond the half-atavistic standards of the 
sports and games. Teachers and the entire community must 
rise to some conception of the meaning of balanced physical 
efficiency in terms of bodily strength, endurance, comeliness, 
freedom from deformity or disease, and ability to resist the 
corrosion of specialized employment before the schools will 
find the art of inspiring right ideals of physical efficiency. 
But in stimulating this form of social consciousness the schools 
must even now lead where they can, and teachers must strive 
to produce followers on a slightly higher plane than they them- 
selves, even though popular appreciation lags. 

Social Hygiene or Sanitation. — Since it becomes more clear 
that in many ways the preservation of health and the increase 
of power is as much a social as an individual matter, instruc- 
tion in hygiene and the development of physical ideals should 
take account of social conditions. Children should receive 
instruction as to the meaning of community sanitation and 
the means and methods employed. Pubhc efforts in dealing 
with disease, in stamping out communicable forms, in isolating 
sources of contagion, and in social prophylaxis should be made 
as clear as possible. Certainly the school can do no more 
serviceable work than to indicate to children in such ways 
that they can understand and even make their parents and 
associates understand the meaning of the war against tuber- 
culosis, the fight for pure milk, the legislation against adul- 
terated foods, and the efforts to control the insect sources of 
contagion in malaria, typhoid, and plague. The connection 
of this form of instruction with that in the social field which 



438 Educational AdTfiijiistration 

looks to clean streets, control of garbage, and the elimination 
of vice should be obvious. And throughout it all, instruction 
must be supplemented by the utilization of the means which 
will produce motives for sanitary living and service, i.e. ideals 
of social service and cooperation. 

The Machinery of Physical Education. — The task of physi- 
cal education is great and even that which is under public 
auspices approximates in importance the work of purely 
cultural education. Its importance has received tardy recog- 
nition, and the machinery for its management is seldom yet 
provided. In most city schools there has developed, fre- 
quently under the department of health, medical inspection 
of schools. This had its origin primarily in the need for 
early discovery of contagious disease, and for this purpose 
physicians visit the schools at intervals and inspect suspicious 
cases. The next step was medical examination of obviously 
defective children, especially those suffering from troubles of 
hearing and sight. So far, in only a very few cities has this 
examination been extended to the diagnosing of the physical 
defects which handicap the school child. ^ In the meantime 
in many school systems there have been introduced special 
teachers of gymnastics or physical culture and sometimes 
directors of games. Not infrequently these have had medical 
training. A widespread interest has grown up in the physical 
welfare of school children, and a vague consciousness that 
not enough is known regarding the main facts is prevalent. 
Our knowledge is at present insufficient and badly coordinated, 
and little of it rests on a statistical foundation ; that is, many 
things are known regarding individual children, but not 
enough regarding general tendencies and characteristics. 

The Department of Physical Education. — Unquestionably 
the logical solution of the problems of physical education in 
the broad sense of that word demands that in each school 
system there should be a department composed of leaders 
properly equipped in the medical and pedagogical sense who 
should assume large direction in matters of hygiene and 

1 But Massachusetts has recently made medical inspection, with some exami- 
nation, a compulsory feature of all school systems. 



The Administration of Physical Educaiio7i 439 

physical development. Such department should be a division 
of the school administrative system under the board and chief 
executive head, and its leading members at least should give 
their entire time and effort to the field of physical education 
of children. The work of such a department should embrace 
at least the following lines : {a) Inspection for contagious 
diseases and fixing of quarantine. This work now per- 
formed by the board of health might be still retained by 
it or, if transferred, should require closest cooperation with 
the board of health, for in this respect the entire com- 
munity is immediately concerned, {b) Examination of school 
children for defects and procuring remedies therefor. 
Glasses, surgical operations, etc., should be required of parents 
unless these could show inability to provide the same, in which 
case the community must bear expense ; and the enforcement 
of the doctor's prescriptions requires cooperation of the school 
nurse. (<?) Medical supervision of the conditions of school 
education, such as furniture, lighting, drinking facilities, sani- 
taries, print of books, hours of instruction, programme of work, 
methods of teachers (in so far as these react harmfully on 
children), lunch-rooms, playgrounds, games, etc. id) Super- 
vision of teachers to the end that these are themselves pre- 
served in good physical condition, that their teaching and 
control conforms to the requirements of hygiene, and that 
they are equipped to impart necessary instruction in hygiene. 
The supervision of instruction should be special, or subject, 
supervision and should extend to the regular teacher only in 
so far as she aims to teach hygiene. Under this head also 
falls the organization of the teaching of hygiene, {e) Admin- 
istration of games, physical exercises, and special forms of 
physical instruction.^ 

The Preparation of Directors of physical education must, 
as shown by the above scheme of work, not only involve medi- 
cal knowledge and experience, but also pedagogical training. 
Medical inspection at present is greatly hampered by {a) the 
possession of only medical knowledge on the part of the physi- 

1 An excellent discussion of this subject appears in the 9th Annual Report of 
the Superintendent of Public Instruction of New York City, 1907 : 133-142. 



440 Educational Administration 

cians detailed, and {F) by the fact that they do not permanently 
specialize in this work. Too often young men, beginners in 
medical practice, are utilized who have little insight into the full 
scheme of school courses and sometimes insufficient apprecia- 
tion of the conditions under which teachers work. Only care- 
ful pedagogical preparation and considerable experience will 
produce the type of person who can direct this work. It will be 
seen that much of the programme involves fields of investiga- 
tion which now hardly fall within the scope of medical practice. 
For example, the hygiene of the printing of the text-books 
which must be used by the school children is a large and im- 
portant aspect of medical oversight. The examination of 
children for those slight defects of sense organs or throat 
which may not impair general health markedly, but which 
seriously affect the child's learning capacity is another. Again, 
at present the average school system has no expert to whom 
it can appeal on such matters as the hygiene of seating and 
of daily programme ; the head of the department of physical 
education should be such an expert. Another field of work is 
in the preparation of teachers for the work of giving instruc- 
tion in hygiene. It is commonly assumed that the teacher, in 
the course of her professional training, receives equipment 
sufficient to enable her to carry on her teaching indefinitely. 
This is a serious mistake. In order to teach many of the 
newer subjects, the teacher must obtain much of her equip- 
ment after beginning work. If the average young teacher 
is to be prepared to teach hygiene successfully, she must be 
carefully taught and supervised by some competent medical 
expert in this field. This can be effected by the formation 
of special classes for teachers' meetings on Saturdays, or by 
special institutes held for a couple of weeks at the beginning 
or end of vacation. By concentration of instruction much 
can be done in a very short time. To this add the provision 
of illustrative materials by a competent supervisor, and occa- 
sional lectures to assemblies of teachers, and the ends of 
hygiene instruction will be in some measure met. 

The Function of the Regular Teacher in physical education 
cannot yet be defined until fully developed expert direction 



The Admmistration of Physical Education 441 

prevails. In the elementary school it will undoubtedly be 
found that, acting under skilled direction, the regular teacher 
can do much better than she now does the work of instruc- 
tion in hygiene, personal and social, and the preservation of 
a wholesome environment about the child. It is probable, 
also, that she will prove able to do much by calisthenics and 
leading in play in the matter of direct physical correction 
and development ; and also in preliminary diagnosis of health 
conditions, to the extent, at least, of isolating cases that 
should receive detailed attention. In view of the probable 
fact that expert medical oversight will prove very expensive, 
and the frequent examination of all children impracticable, 
this phase of the teacher's work will assume much impor- 
tance. For it the teacher will have to be trained to detect 
symptoms and to study children carefully, to the end that 
when dulness, nervousness, and other signs of physical dis- 
order manifest themselves, she will be able at once to make 
provision for examination by the medical expert. 

The School Nurse. — Experience has demonstrated that a 
necessary adjunct to the medical director is a school nurse 
who can act as an intermediary between the physician and 
the school on the one hand, and the school and the home on 
the other. In the early days of medical examination, even 
when defects were discovered and reported to the parents, 
often no action was taken. It is impossible that the medical 
examiner should follow these cases up, nor can the principal 
of the school assume entire responsibility. The school nurse 
as an adjunct of the school can take charge of difficult cases, 
come into contact with the home, and administer relief in 
case of necessity. The nurse can also aid the teacher in 
making preliminary selection of cases which seem to demand 
special medical attention, and can be of much assistance in 
the preparation of data for records and reports. 

Records and Reports in physical education may be made to 
serve several purposes. Medical examination will result in 
the preservation of records of size, strength, growth, ab- 
normality, illness, etc., on the part of the child in some form 
of permanent history. With advancing knowledge it is 



442 Educational Administration 

probable that the daily programme of the child, both in work 
and play, will be based increasingly on this history. These 
records, when accumulated so as to be statistically serviceable, 
may be expected to supply the yet unknown generalizations 
and laws regarding physical changes, growth, effects of dis- 
ease, results of play and work, etc., in childhood. They may 
be expected to disclose the correlations between school life 
and home conditions, between work and exercise, and be- 
tween different kinds of school work. In another form these 
records must also be used to inform parents and, in statis- 
tical form, the community regarding school conditions. The 
school, with its greater command of knowledge regarding the 
particular child and children in general, must stand ready to 
give advice to the home and to make recommendations to 
the community; and it can safely do these things only on 
the basis of a possession of facts. 

National and State Action. — Reference has been made 
elsewhere to the movement to establish, either under the 
Bureau of Education at Washington, or as an independent 
Department or Bureau, a division of government which 
should concern itself broadly with health and other matters 
of the well-being of children. Such department could carry 
on researches somewhat analogous to those now fostered by 
the Departments of Agriculture and the scientific bureaus 
under the Department of the Interior. The need of some- 
thing of this sort is real, since many complicated problems, 
requiring time, resources, and the services of experts, must 
be investigated. 

Within individual states nothing has hitherto been done 
to organize work of this sort. But as medical examination 
becomes general and the importance of wide physical edu- 
cation clearly perceived, it is inevitable that state agencies of 
supervision and direction, as well as investigation, should be 
established. The larger cities may well remain autonomous 
in these matters ; but smaller and non-urban communities 
must have their work coordinated within large units of area. 
In other words, under the state departments must be or- 
ganized divisions deahng with the physical well-being of the 



The Administration of Physical Education 443 

children under education. These departments would be in 
charge of men combining medical and pedagogical expert- 
ness, and would not only direct the work actually available, 
but would advance the field through investigations. 

REFERENCES 

American, S. The Movement for Small Playgrounds, Am. Jour, of 
Soc. 4: 159. — Baginsky, A., and Otto Janke. Handbuch der Schulhy- 
giene. Stuttgart, 1900 (2 vols). — Burnham, W. H. Outlines of School 
Hygiene, Pad. Sem. 2:9-71. — Burnham, W. H. Health Inspection in 
the Schools, Ped. Sem. 7:70-95. — Burnham, W. H. Bibliography of 
School Hygiene, Proc. N. E. A. 1898:505. — Chancellor, W. E. The 
Supervisorship, Ed. 24 : 517. — Chancellor, W. E. Our Schools. Boston, 
1904. — Clark, R. Certain Fallacies in School Hygiene, Forum 31 : 619. 

— Cotton, F. School Furniture for Boston Schools, Am. Phys. Ed. Rev. 
9 : 267. — Crampton, C. W. Physiologic Age — A Fundamental Principle, 
Am. Phys. Ed. Rev. 13:141,214. — Easton, E. T. PubHc School and 
Eyesight, Ed. 21 : 323. — Egbert, S. School Hygiene and the Teaching of 
Hygiene in Public Schools, Am. Phys. Ed. Rev. 9 : 196. — Fall, D. Sani- 
tary Science in our Schools, Ed. 17:266. — Gulick, L. Psychological, 
Pedagogical, and Religious Aspects of Group Games, Ped. Sem. 6: 135. 

— Hall, G.S. Youth: its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene. New York, 
1906. — Harrington, T. F. Constructive Physical Education, Am. Phys. 
Ed. Rev. 13: 193. — Hastings, W. W. Health and Growth of School 
Children, Proc. N. E. A. 1903:769. — Hutchinson, W. Play as Educa- 
tion, Contemp. Rev. 84: 375. — Johnson, G. E. Play in Physical Educa- 
tion, Proc. N. E. A. 1898:948. — Johnson, G. E. Education by Plays 
and Games, Ped. Sem. 3 : 97. — Johnson, G. E. An Educational Experi- 
ment, Ped. Sem. 6: 513. — Johnson, Walter B. The Defective Vision of 
School Children, Ed. Rev. 18: 15. — Lee, J. Playground Education, Ed. 
Rev. 22 : 449. — McCurd}', J. H. A Study of the Characteristics of Physi- 
cal Training in the Public Schools of the United States, Am. Phys. Ed. 
Rev. 10:202. — McCurdy, J. H. A Bibliography of Physical Training. 
Springfield, 1905. — Mackenzie, W. L. The Health of the School Child. 
London, 1907. — Mackenzie, W. L., and Edwin Matthew. The Medical 
Inspection of School Children. London, 1904. — Mosher, E. M. Habit- 
ual Postures of School Children, Ed. Rev. 4: 339. — Oppenheim, N. De- 
velopment of the Child. New York, 1898. — O'Shea, M. V. Dynamic 
Factors in Education. New York, 1906 (with bibliography). — Parsons, 
C. H. Relation of State Legislation to Modern School Buildings, Proc. 
N. E. A. 1901 : 815. — Powell, W. B. Medical Inspection of Schools, Ed. 
18 : 460. — Prince, John T. Overpressure in the Schools, Ed. 21 : 458. — 
Rowe, S. L. The Physical Nature of the Child. New York, 1899. — 
Sabin, H. The Doctor and the School, Ed. 17: 129. — Search, P. W. 



444 Educational Administration 

The Ideal School. New York, 1898. — Scott, W. D. The Sacrifice of the 
Eyes of School Children, Pop. Sci. Mo. 71 : 303. — Talbot, W. T. Some 
Physical Abnormalities of Boys, etc., Ed. 23:299. — Tyler, J. M. The 
Girls in the Grammar Grades, Ed. 26: 404. — Wald, Lillian W. Medical 
Inspection of Public Schools, Annals Am. Acad. 25 : 290. — Wood, T. D. 
School Hygiene and its Bearings on Child Life, Proc. N. E. A. 1903 : 778. 
— Wood, T. D., and Others. School Hygiene, Teachers College Record, 
no. 2 of 1905. For medical inspection, see also Com. of Ed. Reports for 
1898: 487 and 1489; and 1902:509; and 1905:327. See also text-books 
on school hygiene by Kotelman, Barry, and Newsholme ; and bibliography 
of reports, in Rep. of Com. of Ed. 1906: 1289. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

The Administration of Correctional Education 

Prevention of Crime. — One of the large aims of social econ- 
omy is to diminish the percentage of the vagrant, vicious, and 
criminal elements in society. Under primitive conditions the 
existence of a large proportion of anti-social members was im- 
possible, owing to the straitened conditions of living, and the 
easy elimination of the unsuitable. But, under modern civiliz- 
ation and culture, it is possible for a large proportion of in- 
dividuals to live in a parasitic or predatory way, unless sys- 
tematically prevented. For ages during the evolution of 
complex social conditions, society has been constantly endeav- 
oring to cure itself of its pathological tendencies to develop 
criminals and vagrants, but usually with indifferent success. 
This has been largely the case because the punitive or correc- 
tive measures applied have affected mainly adults in whom 
habitual tendencies had already become deeply ingrained. 
The nineteenth century, especially, has seen develop the large 
conception that prevention rather than cure is the most suit- 
able principle for the use of society in dealing with anti-social 
classes ; and prevention is a matter of taking children who 
are likely to become vagrant, vicious, or criminal, and so edu- 
cating them as to make social members. 

Correctional Education. — The general acceptance of this 
idea has led to the evolution of different species of education 
whose general character is correctional — that is, it takes the 
child who, owing to unfavorable environment, neglect, or pos- 
sibly inherited predisposition, has manifested tendencies to- 
ward wayward and vicious conduct, and so educates him by 
special means as to reform him and to equip him with habits 
and standards which, with some continued oversight, will give 

445 



446 Educational Administration 

a satisfactory start toward right social living. The types of 
institutions that have been developed to apply correctional 
education are the following : ia) reformatories, which take 
criminals over the age of sixteen and first offenders, and 
which, while subjecting to genuine imprisonment, endeavor to 
educate them ; ib) juvenile reform schools, taking criminally 
disposed and vagrant children under sixteen, and by parental 
care and education seeking to work permanent reform ; {c) 
parental schools, which also keep constant custody of chil- 
dren, though for short terms ; {d) day truant schools ; {e) 
the juvenile court and probation ; (/) special or disciplinary 
classes. These institutions may be divided into two classes — 
those which remove the child from the custody of his parents, 
and stand in loco parentis for a term at least ; and those which 
leave the child at home, but seek to reenforce the respon- 
sibility of the parents and to improve the control of the home 
and schooh 



I. REFORMATORIES 

It has long been recognized that prisons do comparatively 
little to reform their inmates. Experience has shown that of 
those committed to state prisons a considerable percentage 
are still youthful — i.e. under twenty, and first offenders, 
while others have not been at all habituated to crime. For 
these special prisons, called reformatories, have been set apart 
in some states, and in them types of education have been de- 
veloped which have proven effective in reforming a consider- 
able percentage of those committed. This education is : («) 
industrial, since it is evident that most of the young men in 
these institutions are without skilled occupation, and if they 
are to lead honest lives after leaving the institutions, it is 
necessary that they should be taught to earn a living ; {U) 
moral, accomplished partly by the device of "honor" sec- 
tions and indeterminate sentence by which those who com- 
port themselves best will be entitled to early release ; and {c) 
intellectual or cultural, made necessary by the fact that many 



Administration of Correctional Education 447 

of these prisoners have had very meagre schooling in earlier 
life. The work of the reformatories in some states has proven 
most effective ; but their organization and administration be- 
long essentially to the field of penology rather than education. 



2. JUVENILE REFORM SCHOOLS 

These institutions, like reformatories, are directly descended 
from prisons. At all times in the history of prison institu- 
tions it has been found necessary to confine children. Some- 
times, as in the debtors' jails of the eighteenth century, they 
may have been the children of men imprisoned for debt. 
More commonly, child offenders, youthful witnesses, and neg- 
lected children have been incarcerated. Over a century ago 
the attention of humanitarians was called to the evils of child 
imprisonment in England and America. The resulting agita- 
tion produced special prisons, called houses of refuge, where 
the contaminating effects of the association of children with 
hardened criminals could be obviated. The more progressive 
American states now have these special institutions, but there 
are still several (especially in the South) which have no facil- 
ities for separation of youthful delinquents from hardened of- 
fenders. 

Evolution of the Modern Industrial School. — The houses 
Df refuge were most imperfect ; they were prisons, and 
prison conditions, including forced labor, uneducative and 
unremunerated, were still the rule. The physical conditions 
were bad, and the moral situation often worse. Step by step 
improvements were developed ; barred windows and other 
prison accessories were modified ; the forced labor was re- 
placed by industrial work which should prove educative and 
form the basis of employment after leaving the school ; more 
women were put in charge of boys ; segregation of various 
classes of children took place to reduce the possibilities of 
contamination ; and a merit system was developed, on the 
basis of which each pupil worked out his own release through 
credits for good behavior. Not all schools in America rep- 



448 Educational Administration 

resent yet these conditions ; but the standards exist, and it is 
now well established that constructive correctional education 
is a practical thing, waiting only the means, the right leaders, 
and the disposition to accompHsh it. 

Extent. — In 1 905-1 906 there were reported to the Com- 
missioner of Education 97 reform schools, having an enrol- 
ment of 37,683. Most of them are located in Northern states, 
only a few small ones being found in the South. The run- 
ning expenses of reform schools, to the amount of almost 
^4,000,000 a year, is met from state and occasionally from 
city funds. A few of the schools are controlled by private 
or religious corporations, but, especially in the Western 
states, the large majority are state institutions, managed by 
boards of trustees appointed by the Governor. Only four or 
five of the above schools have an annual enrolment of more 
than 1000; the large majority contains from 200 to 500 
inmates. The term of commitment is indefinite, and release 
depends upon good behavior and upon the finding of a suit- 
able place into which to put the released youth, unless his 
home is acceptable. On the average, boys committed remain 
a trifle less than two years, and girls somewhat longer. 

The Education given in reform schools is distinctly four- 
fold — physical, vocational, social (or moral and religious), 
and cultural. Considering the inferior physical condition of 
the children committed, their urgent need of being taught to 
labor and become self-supporting, and their lack of moral 
character, the relative importance of each kind of education 
is in the order given above, and to organize it on this plan is 
the aim of the better-managed institutions. The results of 
the work justify the procedure of the schools. Not all of 
them preserve reliable statistics or possess information re- 
garding those who are released. But where conditions are 
normal and modern standards observed, the evidence shows 
that from 75 to 90 per cent of the children committed are 
not only prevented from returning to crime, but are made 
self-supporting and respectable. It can be shown that, from 
the standpoint of economy to society, the cost of the schools 
— something over ^100 per inmate per year — represents 



Admmistration of Correctional Education 449 

good social investment, in that it prevents the making of 
criminals whose ultimate cost to society must be very great.^ 
Principles. — In the administration of juvenile reform 
schools, the following principles seem to have been fairly 
well demonstrated by experience : — 

a. Integral Education. — The juvenile reform school exists 
for the training of that class of children who have insufficient 
home care or who have become wayward to the point where 
their homes can no longer control them. The institution 
must therefore provide all forms of education — physical, 
vocational, moral, and intellectual — up to the point where 
the youth may be intrusted with liberty, under supervised 
parole, to fit himself into active life. The school must have a 
variety of agencies for effecting the different kinds of educa- 
tion, and the expense of carrying it on is necessarily large. 

b. Administrative Boards. — In the best of current practice, 
reform schools are under the management of boards, either 
appointed by the state, or by some semi-private authority. 
These elect a General Manager or Superintendent and give 
him large powers in selecting his assistants and managing 
the institution. In some states there is inspection of the 
institutions by the State Superintendent of Schools, or State 
Commissioner of Charities, but the most common form of 
supervision is exerted through state boards of charity and 
correction. Unless these boards are given large responsi- 
bilities for management, in which case they become governing 
or controlling bodies, as in Wisconsin and Iowa, they seem to 

1 In Great Britain there are two types of reform school. The so-called re- 
formatories are for youths up to the age of sixteen who have been convicted of 
some offence, though occasionally they receive children under fourteen years of 
age. In the industrial schools, only children under fourteen are received, and 
these need not have been convicted of any offence, but may be merely neg- 
lected children, in danger of becoming delinquent. The first type had in 1903 
nearly 6000 inmates, while the industrial schools, including a few boarding 
truant schools, contained over 22,000 members. There are also day industrial 
schools which contained over 3300 members who lived at home, but spent the 
full day in the school. The cost per capita for these institutions ranges from 
$100 to $125 per annum, a cost about the same as that for reform schools in the 
United States. 

In the day industrial schools, parents must contribute two shillings per week. 
2G 



450 Educatio7tal Admmistration 

be most effective when they are non-salaried bodies, and, as 
far as may be, non-partisan. These state boards coordinate 
and bring up to the standard the work of the various chari- 
table and correctional institutions, and guard the interests of 
the state in this field of expenditure and public activity. 

c. Cottage System. — From some points of view the small 
reform school approximating the conditions of the home is 
superior for moral training ; but from the necessities of classi- 
fying the inmates, teaching various trades, and maintaining a 
specialized faculty, as well as in the interests of economy of 
management, there are many reasons why the institution 
should be large. The best of recent theory and practice 
points to the development of reform schools on a large 
scaleto accommodate from five hundred to a thousand children, 
but home conditions secured through what is known as the 
cottage system. The underlying aim of this is that the 
school should be situated at a considerable distance from 
cities, should have a large tract of land, and that the 
inmates should reside in cottages accommodating from twenty 
to forty, each cottage under charge of what is known as a 
" housefather " and " housemother," preferably a married 
couple, and that within each cottage the inmates should have, 
not merely sleeping and dining quarters, but also reading- 
rooms and facilities for social recreation. Physical culture, 
as well as literary and vocational training, can be carried on in 
central buildings specially arranged. Under these conditions 
the inmates can be properly classified for purposes of school- 
room instruction, for vocational training, and for physical 
education, and, at the same time, can partake of some of the 
advantages of life in small groups and under homelike con- 
ditions. The cottages can be made the basis of classification 
by age, by character developed within the institution, or by 
some other serviceable standard. 

d. The Age of Commitment to institutions of this type 
should not exceed sixteen, and usually it will not be under 
ten. The sentence should be an indeterminate one, but not 
extending beyond the eighteenth or twenty-first year of the 
age of the inmate. Release from the school should be con- 



Administration of Correctional Education 451 

ditioned on two factors — - that the inmate shall have proven 
worthy of it by continued good deportment and ability in the 
work of the school, and that the paroled youth shall have 
an appropriate place to which he can be sent where he can 
begin a life of self-support, under the supervision of parole 
officers.^ 

e. Fourfold Education. — The education given within the 
institution must be consciously and deliberately fourfold : 
it must be physical, vocational, moral, and cultural. 

1. PJiysical Education. — Owing to neglect and bad envi- 
ronment, most of the children who have reached the stage of 
being committed to a reform school, have imperfect physical 
development and bad physical habits ; they commonly show 
the effects of undernutrition, and irregular living. Their 
moral defects are often closely associated with physical de- 
ficiencies. Their success and character in the life they are to 
follow after leaving the school will be largely dependent 
upon an equipment of health, physical strength, and good 
habits. Under suitable control of diet ; regular and wise 
alternation of work, study, play, exercise, and rest ; special 
gymnastic and military drill ; and instruction in hygiene, — it is 
practicable to quickly correct many deficiencies and provide 
a large positive equipment. This development is a marked 
feature of all the best schools. 

2. Vocational Education. — All investigation tends to show 
that the most prolific source of the criminal or vagrant char- 
acter is found in lack of ability to do work well. Children 
who are raised under conditions which do not make necessary 
the learning of a vocation, or acquiring habits of industry, 
provide the largest number of parasitic and predatory mem- 
bers of society. Hence reform schools, recognizing the prac- 
tical impossibility of having their charges acquire vocational 
powers outside of the institution, have, for many years, de- 
voted a considerable part of their efforts to this end. The 
situation has been complicated by the fact that in the early 

1 In case a youth prove irreclaimable, it is the conviction of penologists that 
he should not be released, but should be transferred to a reformatory or prison 
when he reaches eighteen or twenty. 



452 Educational Administration 

schools it was endeavored to make the children partly contrib- 
ute to the support of the institution through some form of pro- 
ductive labor. Of necessity, this had to be work of a factory 
character, with much specialization ; it soon ceased to be 
educative and was performed under conditions which made 
it loathsome to the growing youth. Lately, the best insti- 
tutions have given up factory and productive labor, except 
so far as this is distinctly educative, and have, on a consider- 
able scale, undertaken to teach their inmates trades, or other 
vocations, which can be followed for self-support after leaving 
the school. A large part of the work of the institution itself 
is performed by the inmates, and after some habits of industry 
have been acquired, the youth is directed into some special- 
ized line, where he learns the beginnings of a trade. 

3. Social Education. — Within itself the reform school 
must combine the various home and religious influences 
which make for moral training. Usually there is religious 
education, though in state institutions, necessarily, of a non- 
sectarian character. There is usually found a considerable 
recognition of the utility of direct instruction in ethical and 
in civic relations. But the more effective agencies for moral 
education are found in the organization of the life and work 
of the institution itself. The entire routine of work, play, and 
rest is so conducted as to lead to the formation of a body of 
useful habits. Classification is so carried on as to prevent the 
relatively uncontarainated from being corrupted by the worse 
members. Certain privileges within the school, like residence 
in an honor cottage, visiting days, etc., and the release of the 
inmate finally, are conditioned on behavior, working out 
through what is known as the merit system, by which the 
inmate literally earns his own release. But he can only do 
this by long practice of self-control, right conduct, and indus- 
try, the net effect of which is the formation, within measure, 
of a moral character. 

4. Ctiltural Education. — Children committed to the re- 
form schools are usually far behind other children in their 
school attainments. Many are not bright in the school sense 
of the word, and many more have been very irregular in 



Administration of Correctional Education 453 

attendance. The reform school, therefore, must undertake 
so much of this form of education as may be necessary for 
the pupil. Sometimes the schools have attempted to follow 
the same courses of study as are found in the public day 
schools, but this is usually deemed inadvisable in the best 
institutions, since the conditions require the making of an 
independent programme. The urgent needs of the reform 
school youth along the lines of what is called in the institu- 
tions " literary " education, are partly practical and partly cul- 
tural ; in either case instruction should be adapted strictly to 
the character and prospective lives of the youths themselves. 
For example, oral and written English, drawing, arithmetic, 
and simple devices for accounts, are very practical needs, and 
should be ministered to directly in connection with the voca- 
tional pursuits of the inmates. The primary cultural needs 
are found in connection with the establishment of habits 
of reading of a profitable kind, and this can best be ac- 
complished in the cottage homes. More, perhaps, than or- 
dinary persons these children, as adults, will require resources 
against idleness and vice in time of leisure. For this pur- 
pose, nothing can equal taste for reading and wide acquaint- 
ance with books. The second large cultural agency is 
music. Living a more or less communal life, and having 
apparently considerable taste and talent for music, under 
suitable instruction considerable education can be accom- 
plished in this field. Most of the institutions maintain 
bands. Musical instruments should be found in the cottages. 
Through the two or more years' residence, with daily assem- 
blies, it is possible to give extensive training in singing, the 
moral and cultural value of which is apparent in the lives of 
this class of youths who may be more than usually suscep- 
tible to emotional influences. Generally speaking, the peda- 
gogy of cultural education in these schools is yet quite 
defective. 

/. Classification of Inmates within the school is desirable, 
though the basis of this classification has not yet been accu- 
rately determined. The first essential is that youths that may 
be capable of imparting contaminating influences shall not be 



454 Educational Administration 

allowed to live with those who might easily be harmed. Fre- 
quently, but not invariably, this will involve the separation of 
the mature and hardened from the relatively immature. In 
case of girls it will involve the separation of those who have 
been living lives of vice from those who have been committed 
for other causes. But within these large limits the adminis- 
tration of classification is frequently based on conduct in the 
institution. There may be an honor cottage in which the 
freedom is greater and the privileges of a more marked char- 
acter than in the others, and to this cottage are promoted the 
exceptionally well behaved and those who have neared their 
period of release, owing to satisfactory conduct. At the 
opposite extreme is found a cottage which might be des- 
ignated as a local prison, where the most unmanageable are 
found. Since many of the children committed to state reform 
schools are defective mentally, weak though not absolutely 
feeble minded, it has been found desirable to reserve one 
cottage for this type, so that living conditions and work could 
be adapted to their specials needs. In some institutions 
various devices are employed to develop the espi^it dit corps 
of the group in each cottage, so that a considerable corporate 
sentiment and conscience may be made to prevail. For 
example, a cottage may be deprived of some credit or priv- 
ilege if one of its members runs away, or commits a flagrant 
offence. The result is that all the members of each cottage 
are enlisted to prevent the commission of offences. The 
psychological procedure involved in establishing these condi- 
tions is not yet clearly understood, best results being accom- 
plished by the intuitive insight of the wise administrator. 

g. Parole. — The youth who is released is always sent into 
employment, or to his home if this is suitable. In some states 
special laws exist for indenturing the released children, with 
the provision that if conditions are not satisfactory the youth 
may be returned. The average stay of boys and girls in 
reform schools is about two years, and the average age at 
release is between fifteen and sixteen. Less than half of 
the children released can be returned to their homes. Con- 
sequently, some sort of care and oversight is desirable for 



Administration of Correctional Education 455 

those who are still immature after they leave school. Under 
favorable conditions for administration, we find attached to 
each school a system of sustained oversight. The youth is 
released, not finally or absolutely, but on parole, and liable 
to return. An agent of the school receives the weekly or 
monthly reports of the youth from himself and from his 
employer or guardian. The agent not only corresponds 
regularly with the child, but at intervals visits him, gives him 
encouragement, and makes local adjustments, or even finds 
him a new place if the old is unsatisfactory. If the youth 
violates his parole, steps are taken to procure his arrest and 
recommitment. All experience has shown that an effective 
system of parole supervision which includes provisions for 
visiting at intervals those paroled is one of the most econom- 
ical agencies in the administration of these schools, judged 
by its final results. It serves to carry the reformed youth over 
a very critical time in his life when he is endeavoring to make 
adjustments to practical conditions. 

Problem of Producing Capacity for Self-direction. — The 
juvenile reform schools are remarkable for the number of 
experiments which they have worked out to a successful con- 
clusion. Three large problems still confront them, which 
have not yet received adequate attention, {a) The first is 
to develop in their charges not merely industrial but also 
economic capacity in the sense of having full appreciation 
and knowledge of the conditions of self-support. Many of 
the graduates of these schools are well equipped for some 
kinds of labor, but they do not know how to spend or save 
money. They have been controlled and directed so long by 
the state that in this respect they are still children, and their 
lack of acquaintance with conditions of thrift, saving, and 
spending may even cause their return to crime. It is well 
known that one of these schools under pecuharly excellent 
private management has succeeded to a great degree in pro- 
ducing conditions of a true economic education, through actu- 
ally paying the youths for their work, and obliging them to 
pay for their board and lodging and other needs. What the 
George Junior Republic has accomplished in this direction 



456 Educational Administration 

could be done also by other schools, on somewhat the same 
lines as in certain reformatories. The administration of the 
scheme is difficult and may involve additional expense, but 
so was the introduction of true vocational education to replace 
the old system of reproductive factory work. 

b. Problem of Training Teachers. — The second problem 
is found in the matter of giving special training for teachers 
and other officers of these schools. At present each institu- 
tion practically trains its own staff, and naturally the results 
are slow and unequal, and the teachers and other officers 
trained usually lack perspective and any general knowledge 
of the conditions of their work. These institutions, for ex- 
ample, possess an almost unequalled opportunity for scientific 
study of delinquent children, yet the number of studies pro- 
duced has been negligible. Only when the members, or 
some of them, of the staff come to look at their work in a 
broad and scientific way, will it be possible to have such 
studies produced, and scientific training of this sort can only 
be had at a central institution. The number of teachers and 
other trained workers which the one hundred institutions of 
the country require would make a fair demand upon one 
large central establishment. The formation of a national 
training school for this purpose seems at present administra- 
tively almost impossible. The states are independent, few 
have more than two such schools, and over this type of 
administration the national government has no control. Con- 
sequently, however the need of such training may be felt, the 
difficulties in the way of its realization seem great. Under 
ideal conditions, some large reform school, with extensive 
plant and favorable conditions, should maintain a training 
school, so that the students would have abundant opportunity 
for observation and practical experience, while at the same 
time they would be studying the scientific side of their field 
of work. 

c. Application of Pedagogical Principles. — The third prob- 
lem that confronts the reform school is found in its failure to 
apply modern pedagogical principles to the purely teaching 
side of its work. Even in those schools which reach a high 



Administration of Correctional Education 457 

standard of excellence from the standpoint of industrial 
training, moral control, and physical education, the pedagog- 
ical standards of the class work are very low. Not infre- 
quently inferior teachers are employed, and the work is 
formal and barren to the last degree. These children are 
peculiarly in need of vital and concrete teaching, and the sur- 
roundings offer abundant opportunities for a rich and varied 
correlation and application of work. Each school needs a 
principal of instruction who is in thorough sympathy with 
the best principles of modern pedagogy, and willing to study 
experimentally the problem of making the best possible 
adjustments for the pupils who come to learn under the 
peculiar conditions of reform school life. But the disposition 
to select such a leader must wait on the proper appreciation 
of the entire problem by board and superintendent. 

3. PARENTAL SCHOOLS 

In its aims and management the parental school is very 
similar to the reform school, though it is designed to receive 
habitual truants and incorrigibles, even when they have com- 
mitted no direct offence. Such schools may, as in Massa- 
chusetts, receive their inmates from one or more adjacent 
counties, or they may simply serve the educational needs of 
large cities. The child is taken away from his home for 
either a definite or indefinite period, subjected to a special 
regimen of nutrition, physical education, and control which 
is designed to correct bad habits and give a right attitude 
towards school life, and incidentally to exert a deterrent 
influence. 

Problem of the Parental School. — A dilemma always con- 
fronts the reform school which is attached to the public 
school system, and aims to send its pupils at the earliest mo- 
ment back into the public schools. The aim of the institution 
should be constructive, that is, it should feed, clothe, and 
care for the children as effectively as possible, to the extent 
of providing medical care, opportunities for sports, and voca- 
tional education ; but it also should be in some measure a 



458 Educational Administration 

penal institution in the sense that it must provide motives on 
the part of the child for remaining in the ordinary school. 
These two aims are somewhat in opposition, especially since 
many of the children committed come from unattractive 
homes and are often neglected or mistreated by their parents. 
Furthermore, the parental school cannot, as a rule, keep its 
inmates as long as the reform school ; it is not able to work 
the thoroughgoing reform that is possible to the latter. In 
practice we iind that some children are returned many 
times to the parental school, and there may exist in the com- 
munity no very great fear of detention there. The solution 
of this problem undoubtedly lies in having a careful sifting 
out of cases before commitment to the parental school be- 
comes necessary. In other words, by means of special 
classes, day truant schools, and the probation system, children 
manifesting tendencies towards incorrigibility must be dealt 
with, always in close cooperation with the home ; and parental 
schools must be reserved for children whose home conditions 
or control are hopelessly inferior. Then when children are 
committed to parental schools — which should be essentially 
reform schools and not distinguishable in management from 
the latter — the term should be sufficiently long to effect gen- 
uine reform, and release should be earned. Likewise, the 
safeguards for parole should be developed for this class, so 
that the school control may follow the child after he takes 
up his vocational work. In view of the probability that 
nearly all children who have become so unmanageable as to 
warrant their being sent to a parental school will rarely profit 
from further attendance at ordinary day schools, the aim of 
the former should be to keep those committed to it until they 
are ready to embark in industry of some sort ; and the school 
should, like the reform school, extend considerable aid in the 
process of making this adjustment. But, fundamentally, insti- 
tutional treatment should be the last resort. 



Administratiojt of Correctional Education 459 



4. DAY TRUANT SCHOOLS 

Day truant schools are not novel in educational history, 
but they are still in the experimental stage. With the 
development of compulsory education, it becomes necessary 
to recognize the existence of a class of children who are 
badly adjusted to the ordinary school class, who are a per- 
petual source of trouble to teachers when compelled to attend, 
and whose attendance is so irregular as to prevent their 
making any genuine educational progress within the regular 
classes. To a certain extent the formation of a special 
school for these children, with special ofiEicers in charge to 
enforce attendance, has helped the situation. In these it 
is possible to get teachers of more than usual capacity in 
dealing with recalcitrants, and to make special adjustments 
of curriculum. Two features of notable interest are the 
curriculum offered, and the type of control developed. 

Curriculum. — It is generally conceded that for children 
over eleven or twelve who have been selected for the day 
truant school, it is especially desirable to provide a curriculum 
rich in appeals to motor activity. There are, of course, 
other types of unmanageable pupils than those of the strongly 
motor type ; but, with few exceptions, even these seem to 
be able to profit more from objective and concrete work 
than from other forms. As a consequence, the tendency 
is to increase the amount of manual training work for boys, 
or domestic arts for girls, and to provide for abundance of 
physical training. There seems every reason to believe that 
with better and more purposeful development, this tendency 
will increase; and the work will take on more and more 
a vocational character as it has done in the institutional 
schools of correction. In this connection it may be possible to 
borrow a valuable lesson from the practices of certain English 
cities which have established a type of school that combines 
day and residence features in apparently successful fashion.^ 

1 They are called Day Industrial Schools, and in 1903 were reported to have 
3300 pupils. They are located in poor parts of large cities. 



460 Educational Admmish''atio7i 

In these schools the school day is long, from eight to twelve 
hours. The child sleeps at home, but in most cases gets all 
his meals at the school. A large part of the institutional 
work — preparing and serving food, washing dishes and 
clothes, sweeping, etc. — is assigned to the children, partly 
for its educational value, and partly to keep them wholesomely 
employed. A portion of the day is taken up with ordinary 
studies; a considerable part, where facilities are available, 
with manual work; and another important part with games 
and physical exercise. The boy must leave home as early 
as his father who is going to work ; and he returns late 
in the evening. During the entire intervening time he is 
off the streets and in a wholesome environment and profitably 
employed. The school provides a guard who brings in 
children that have failed to come themselves. Usually the 
teachers live in the school, which assumes a domestic 
character, but is not obliged to provide the expensive accom- 
modations which are necessary where children reside perma- 
nently. Since most of these children come from very poor 
homes, from which, frequently, both parents are absent during 
the day, the semi-residential character of the school exerts a 
profound moral influence. 

Undoubtedly, since the day truant school must occupy 
a peculiar field, it will have to develop that which it has 
not now — individuality and characteristic features. The 
long control, perhaps extending through all ordinary vacation 
seasons,^ is especially important, since no school that does 
not deliberately do much to counteract the deteriorative 
factors of street and slum life can hope to permanently 
affect the truant. It must furthermore attack the problem 
of manual and vocational work, and it must make its control 
far-reaching through its direction of not merely the working 
side of the child's life, but his play and home life as well. 

1 In the English Day Truant Schools provision is made for a visit of at least 
a fortnight to the country or seashore during the summer season. 



Administration of Correctional Education 461 



5. THE JUVENILE COURT AND PROBATION 

A comparatively recent development in penological and 
educational practice in the matter of dealing with actual or 
prospective delinquents is found in the juvenile court, and its 
attendant probational system. Just as the reform school de- 
veloped to segregate children from the gangrenous influences 
of jails and prisons containing adult criminals, so the juvenile 
court is an attempt to develop special processes of court pro- 
cedure in order to save impressionable children from the 
crude and often corrupt influences of jails and related pro- 
cesses of dealing with criminals on trial. It presupposes the 
selection of a judge with strong interests in the education and 
the welfare of children, and one who is disposed to study the 
conditions of their treatment from a scientific point of view, 
both penologically and educationally. It presupposes special 
quarters or times of session for the court, to the end that con- 
tact with mature criminals may be avoided. It presupposes 
also more personal relations between judge and culprit than 
are possible under ordinary judicial procedure. When con- 
finement is necessary, it is assumed that it will be under 
matrons and men capable of giving the right surroundings. 

Probation Officers. — The juvenile court also assumes the 
existence of probation officers in whose charge children con- 
victed of misdemeanors may be released under suspension of 
sentence and on probation. The probationary force must be 
composed of women and, possibly, men who can serve as 
intermediaries between the court and the home and school. 
The probation officers must keep in touch with children so 
released, must impose the conditions of behavior which will 
be acceptable during the probationary period, and must adopt 
means to enlist the strong cooperation of home and school. 
It is distinctly a process of child saving, for probation takes 
place in a critical stage of the child's development, and in the 
relation of the home to the delinquent. Under an adequate 
system it is believed that a very large number of children 
who have, especially in cities, drifted into wayward careers 



462 Educational Administration 

and have become associated with habitual offenders may be 
reclaimed with no further help than that offered by the juve- 
nile court and probation system. Not only do these agencies 
take cognizance of children charged with offences ; their use- 
fulness may be further extended to the oversight of children 
suffering from parental neglect, and who should be committed 
to appropriate institutions. In cases where responsibility for 
the wrong-doing of the child devolves largely upon parents, 
the court may become the agency for the prosecution of the 
latter. 

Tentative Character. — Notwithstanding the enormous use- 
fulness of the juvenile court and probation in preventing at 
its incipiency the making of criminals, the system has by no 
means come to be generally established, and provision for the 
maintenance of probation officers is yet usually philanthropic. 
There has yet been devised no entirely satisfactory means of 
selecting the peculiar personality needful in the judge, nor is 
there any system of training and selecting probation officers. 
The close relation of juvenile delinquency to truancy suggests 
that possibly the machinery for its control should be at least 
partly under the management of the school system, but hardly 
any movement in this direction has yet begun. Wherever 
tried, the juvenile court would appear to have brought only 
good results. The managers of some reform schools claim 
that since the inauguration of the probation system the char- 
acters of children committed to these schools have changed 
for the worse. This they attribute to the fact that the child 
who has been released several times on probation, instead of 
being committed at once to the school, has suffered hardening 
and deterioration of character. It is probable that this charge 
is true ; but the real worth of the probation system must be 
judged mainly on the basis of the number of incipient delin- 
quents it permanently saves from penal institutions. 

6. SPECIAL OR DISCIPLINARY CLASSES 

Within the public school system the most important form 
of correctional education is to be found in the special classes 
which have developed in many cities within recent years. 



Administration of Correctional Education 463 

The essential features of special disciplinary classes are : {a) 
the setting apart of a room furnished for pupils of different 
grades (an "ungraded" room), to contain not to exceed 
twenty or twenty-five pupils ; {!)) the selection of a teacher, 
probably at more than the average compensation, of strong 
personality and considerable experience who is well qualified 
to deal with boys that can be managed only with difficulty ; 
{c) the provision of a special programme of studies, with 
work largely individualized, including as much manual and 
objective practice as can be supplied ; {d) commitment to 
this room on recommendation of teacher by principal or 
superintendent. If pupils are to be segregated for disci- 
plinary reasons, the above conditions of their control hardly 
need elaboration. 

The Aims of the Special Class are two : to relieve the regular 
classroom of the presence of pupils who require a dispro- 
portionate share of the time of the teacher for control, and 
to procure the most favorable conditions for the effective 
education of the pupils segregated. («) The ordinary class- 
room contains from forty to fifty pupils. The aim of class 
organization is to obtain a group that is as homogeneous as 
possible in the matters of intellectual advancement and con- 
trol. If such a class contains one or two pupils who, owing 
to whatever causes, present unusual problems of government, 
they become a disturbing influence to the teacher and to the 
remainder of the class. They have the effect of modifying 
the discipline of the entire room, tending to make it more 
arbitrary and severe. The presence of these exceptional 
pupils may become a sore trial to the teacher, a condition 
which is not improved when custom or regulation prohibits 
the use of corporal punishment. If it can be shown that the 
segregation of unusual pupils of the type described above 
will enable the teacher to make her discipline milder and to 
distribute her energies more equally among all the pupils, 
then, apart from other considerations, the removal of such 
pupils would be justified. It should also be evident that in 
proportion as compulsory education laws are adequately en- 
forced, the number of children of this type will increase ; for, 



464 Educational Administration 

under conditions of lax enforcement of attendance laws, such 
pupils tend soon to drop away from the schools. The good 
of the majority of the children in our public schools requires 
that pupils who submit to school order with difficulty and 
with undue sacrifice of the teacher's energy should be 
gathered into special classes. 

b. The Effect on the Unmanageable Pupil himself of segre- 
gation must also be considered. Ordinarily there exists a 
strong prejudice against allowing or forcing lawless children 
into each other's company. But it must be remembered 
that the special class offers two advantages to offset the 
harmful influence of bringing bad children together : the one 
is the control under a rigid but kindly form of discipline by a 
teacher of exceptional competence in this department; and 
the second, that under this form of control and with small 
classes it is possible to have all children working up to their 
full capacity at all times. The difficult child, in the ordinary 
schoolroom, escapes notice a considerable part of the time ; 
he is not sufficiently employed, and his objectionable quahties 
often tend to become aggravated under the kind of control 
that must of necessity be exercised in the crowded class. In 
a large proportion of cases the child needing constant disci- 
plinary control does not derive much profit from the regular 
class work, especially if he be twelve or more years old. 
Segregation, on the other hand, would give him the maximum 
of educational advantage, and it would permit the teacher to 
make special adjustments for the old pupil who has been 
much retarded in the grades to the end that his last remain- 
ing years of school life could fit him as directly as possible 
for the practical career which he will soon enter. 

Legislation regarding Special Classes. — The following ex- 
tracts from the laws of three states show tendencies of recent 
legislation : — 

New York. — " The school authorities of any city or school district may 
establish schools, or set apart separate rooms in school buildings, for 
children between eight and sixteen years of age, who are habitual truants 
from instruction upon which they are lawfully required to attend, or who 
are insubordinate or disorderly during their attendance upon such instruc- 
tion, or irregular in attendance. Such school or room shall be known as 



Administration of Correctional Education 465 

a truant school ; but no person convicted of crimes or misdemeanors shall 
be committed thereto. Such authorities may provide for the confinement, 
maintenance, and instruction of such children in such schools." The 
authorities may with consent of parents commit children to such institu- 
tions for even two years, but not to exceed sixteen years of age ; and if 
parents will not consent, proceedings against the child as a disorderly 
person may be begun. 

" Every child suspended from attendance upon instruction by the authori- 
ties in charge of furnishing such instruction, for more than one week, shall 
be required to attend truant school during such suspension. . . . Industrial 
training shall be furnished in every such truant school." 

New Jersey. — " The board of education of any special district may 
establish and maintain a school or schools, or may set apart separate rooms 
in a public school building for the use, restraint, and instruction of children 
between the ages of seven and fourteen years who shall be habitual truants 
from school or who shall be habitually insubordinate or incorrigible or dis- 
orderly during their attendance at school. Such school or room shall be 
known as the parental school. . . . 

"Said board of education may compel any such child to attend such 
parental school and, with the consent in writing of the parents, guardian, 
or other such person having legal control of such child, may cause such 
child to be restrained and instructed therein for such period and under 
such rules and regulations as such board of education may prescribe." 

If any such child shall not attend such school, he may be 
proceeded against as a disorderly person. 

If no parental school is found in a district, the Board of 
Education may make arrangements to send unmanageable 
children to parental schools elsewhere. 

Minnesota. — " [The Board of Education] may maintain ungraded 
schools for the instruction of children of the following classes, between 
eight and sixteen years of age : — 

" I . Habitual truants. 

"2. Those incorrigible, vicious, or immoral in conduct. 

"3. Those who habitually wander about the streets or other public 
places during school hours, without lawful employment. 

" All such children shall be deemed disorderly, and the board may com- 
pel their attendance at such truant school or any department of the public 
schools, as the board may determine." 

7. COORDINATION OF CONSTRUCTIVE FORCES 

The history of the development of the science of penology 
and the history of education show few points of contact. 
The great body of experience and traditions of the reform 



466 Educational Administration 

schools grew up with little influence from the field of public 
education. The schools have not learned what they should 
from the experience of reformatory education, especially 
along the lines of vocational training and moral control. 
More recently the juvenile court and the probation systems 
have attained considerable dimensions, but with only acci- 
dental connection with public education. 

Obviously this is wasteful and, in the long run, harmful in 
every way. All the forces that make for social construction, 
as those are concerned with children, should be consciously 
coordinated. In every community should be found a clearing- 
house which takes account of all children, ignoring none, 
even if these be defective, incorrigible, or illegally at work. 
At present too many separate and independent agencies are 
at work saving children, educating children, and employing 
children. Philanthropy is in one field, the public service in 
another. The various departments are doing good work, but 
it is uncoordinated and wasteful, and too many individual 
cases are lost to sight of all. The forces should be integrated. 
There should be registration of every child in the community, 
and to some central authority, perhaps the public school 
department, should be assigned final responsibility for ac- 
counting to society for every individual. Under this central 
authority, the various agencies should work in cooperation. 
The public school should segregate unmanageable or defec- 
tive children ; it should follow up the truant ; it should proceed 
against negligent parents ; it should procure the commitment 
to institutions of those whose homes are no longer sufBcient ; 
it should work hand in hand with the juvenile court; it 
should direct agencies to aid in the employment of children ; 
and it should organize probation and parole. Its registration 
and other records should show the disposition of every child 
of the community within the ordinary years of education. 
When the incorrigible has been dealt with by the educational 
system up to, say, the age of sixteen, he should if still irre- 
claimable be turned over to the penal authorities, and his 
education henceforth should be of the reformatory type. Of 
our present system of dealing with children of all kinds in 



Administration of Correctional Education 467 

the community, it can only be said that it is well intentioned 
but highly inefficient ; it still retains too much of the prin- 
ciple of laissez-faire, which, however valuable for adult 
society, may not be applied generally to parents and em- 
ployers in all their relations with children. 

REFERENCES 

Baernreither, Dr. J. M. Jugendfuersorge und Strafrecht in den Verein- 
igten Staaten von Amerika. Leipzig, 1905. — Barrows, S. J. The Re- 
formatory System of the United States, U. S. Govt. Printing Office. 
Washington, 1900. — Bonjean, G. Enfants Revoltes et Parents Coupables. 
Paris, 1899. — Folks, H. Dependent, Delinquent, and Neglected Children. 
New York, 1902. — Goler, G. W. The Juvenile Delinquent, Proc. Nat. 
Conf. of Char, and Cor. 1896:352. — Henderson, C. R. Dependents, 
Delinquents, Defectives. Boston, 1901. — Hilles, C. D. Expansion 
as applied to Reformatories for Juvenile Delinquents, Proc. Nat. Conf. 
of Char, and Cor. 1901:269. — Joly, H. L'enfance Coupable. Paris, 
1904. — Kellor, F. Experimental Sociology. New York, 1901. — 
Nibecker, F. H. Education of Juvenile Delinquents, Ann. of the Am. 
Acad, of Pol. and Soc. Sci. 23:483. — Snedden, D. Administration 
and Educational Work of American Juvenile Reform Schools. New York, 
1907. — Wines, F. H. State of Prisons and Child-saving Institutions in 
the Civilized World. Cambridge, 1880. — U. S. Bureau of Census, 
Special Reports, Prisoners and Juvenile Dehnquents, 1904. — U. S. Com. 
of Ed. Rep., 1899-1900:85-219 (a full account of truancy legislation, 
etc.). — Goss, J. A. The Value of Truant Schools, Proc. N. E. A. 
1901 : 820. — Kline, L. W. Truancy as Related to the Migrating Instinct, 
Ped. Sem. 5:381. — Lee, J. Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy. 
New York, 1902. — Pearse, C. G. Checks to Criminal Tendency, Ed. 17 : 
389. — Seaver, E. R. The Care of Truants and Incorrigibles, Ed. Rev. 7 : 
423. — Shaw, A. A Lesson for the Public Schools, World's Work, 7335. — 
Snedden, D. The Public Schools and Juvenile Delinquency, Ed. Rev. 
lil> • 374- — Sheldon, H. D. Institutional Activities of American Children, 
Am. Jour, of Psy. 9:425. — Williamson. Juvenile Courts, Ann. Am. 
Acad. 20:255. — I^SP- of Com. of Ed. 1892:775; Rep. of Com. of Ed. 
1899 : 124 ; Report of Chicago Education Commission, 160. 



CHAPTER XXV 

Administration of Education for Defective and Sub- 
normal Children 

Modern civilization has undertaken, on a large scale, the 
custody and education of the considerable number of chil- 
dren who inherit or acquire defects in physical and mental 
powers. Among these are many varieties and degrees. The 
deaf mutes, the blind, and the crippled ; the idiotic and the 
feeble-minded ; those handicapped by imperfect sight or 
hearing, or other partial defect; and those slightly below 
normal in mental powers, — all these form classes for whose 
protection and aid private philanthropy and state enterprise 
are in increasing degree enlisted, actuated by the two motives 
of justice and charity toward the individual, and protection 
to society. 

Development. — As in the case of educational systems for 
delinquent children, the institutions for the care and instruc- 
tion of defectives have had relatively little contact with the 
public school system in America. They have followed inde- 
pendent lines of development, and only recently are they 
occupying contiguous territory, owing to their common in- 
terest in the large number of less clearly defined cases, and 
because public education is taking more adequate possession 
of its field.i The development of special classes in the city 
school systems for backward, subnormal, and crippled chil- 
dren has turned the attention of educators to the institutions 
which have for decades been dealing with the more extreme 
cases of these defectives. In a few states, like California, 
special provision is made for the education of types of defec- 
tives, as in the case of required special schools for the deaf, 

1 This is clearly indicated by the formation in the National Educational 
Association of a Department of Special Education in 1898, dealing with the 
education of defectives. This was started by instructors of the deaf. 

468 



Education of Defectives 469 

which are established substantially as parts of the general 
school system. 

Two Types of educational effort must be considered in dis- 
cussing the administration of education for defectives. The 
first is institutional in character, where the child has not 
merely teachers, but custodians, nurses, and support. The 
second assumes a division of labor with the home, and is 
properly a form of special day school. Ordinarily, schools 
are classified as schools for the blind, for the deaf, for the 
feeble-minded, etc, A variety of types, some of experimental 
character, are found among those of non-institutional char- 
acter. Day schools for the deaf, for the blind, and for 
cripples are found ; also for mentally retarded children, or 
children temporarily or permanently ineffective for ordinary 
school work. It is among schools of the latter type that the 
greatest variety prevails at the present time, in the attempts 
of public and private educational effort to secure greater 
adjustment to the individual. 

Education of the Blind, — In 1904-1905 forty institutions for 
the blind were reported from the various states, exclusive of 
homes which were not of an educational character. In 
these schools faculties aggregating 505 teachers cared for 
and educated 4441 youths at an average annual expense 
of considerably over ^200 per year per student. A part 
of the education is vocational in character, and each 
year sees additional attention given to this department of 
work. All of these institutions are coeducational ; ten have 
fewer than 50 pupils, eighteen from 50 to 150 pupils, and 
the remaining twelve, 1 50 or more. The expenditure ranges 
from $130 to over $400 per capita per annum, being above 
$300 in four of the twenty institutions reporting, and below 
^200 in eight. Two of the largest have an annual expendi- 
ture of under ^200 per capita, but that of two others of the 
largest size is over $300 per capita. The above were all public 
institutions, supported and controlled by state authorities. 

Education of the Deaf. — In the same year there were 
reported 56 institutions for the deaf, besides 64 public and 
16 private day schools. In the state institutions were 10,321 



470 Educational Adfninistration 

pupils, with 1 202 instructors. These, too, are all coeduca- 
tional ; few have less than 100 pupils or more than 400. 
The annual cost ranges from ;^200 to ^300 per capita, with 
a few cases above and a few below these sums. In these 
institutions special attention is given to forms of industrial 
education which will fit for vocational usefulness, though 
naturally the great stress is on the teaching of a language 
system. Public day schools for the deaf are found in Cali- 
fornia, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin. They are 
usually small, having but one or two teachers, and in Wis- 
consin, California, and Ohio, for example, receive liberal 
public aid.^ The new law of Ohio authorizes boards of edu- 
cation to establish schools for the deaf, age not less than three 
years. For any number of three or more in these schools, 
the state provides at the rate of $50 each. The law 
requires that " all persons appointed to teach in any such 
school shall have had special training for teaching, and also 
shall have had special training in the teaching of the deaf, 
including at least one year's experience as a teacher in the 
school for the deaf. The so-called ' oral method ' shall be 
used. ..." The State School Commissioner must appoint 
a special inspector of such schools, who is to visit them twice 
a year, and submit a written report. Private schools for the 
deaf are not numerous or large, and generally under religious 
auspices. 

Manual training is found in the curricula of all state in- 
stitutions for the deaf, since it is recognized as preparatory to 
trades work. In addition, printing, cooking, sewing, carpentry, 
painting, garden work, basketry, shoemaking, carving, baking, 
glazing, forging, harness-making, laundry, horticulture, and 
tailoring are mentioned as the various trades taught. Much 
of the manual training seems to take a distinctly trade bent, 
the time being short in which to equip the handicapped youth 
to enter the competition of industry. 

Schools for the Feeble-minded are distinguished from institu- 
tions which care for the insane or mentally ** sick " and from 

1 In Wisconsin and California state aid is now extended to any community 
which contains a small number of deaf children requiring special instruction. 



Education of Defectives 471 

custodial homes for the unteachable defectives. There are 
twenty-five public or state schools of this type, most of them 
very large. In these twenty-five schools are a total of 301 
teachers, 183 industrial instructors, and 1208 custodians, for 
15,530 children. The annual per capita expenditure is not 
easily determined, as they have a fluctuating population, but 
it is much less than in schools for the deaf and dumb. The 
teachers employed are not required to be of equal training, 
and the equipment used in teaching is not yet at all elaborate. 
About fifteen small private schools for feeble-minded are 
also reported by the Commissioner of Education, many of 
which assume the character of custodial homes for children 
of feeble intellect whose parents cannot afford to send them 
to a private home. 

In the schools under public support a variety of trades 
are taught, most of them of a domestic character, as cooking, 
sewing, household work, lace-making, crocheting, laundering, 
dressmaking, dairying, and the like for girls, and garden- 
ing, shoemaking, masonry, and other trades for the boys. 

Institutional Education. — In the administration of educa- 
tion for the various classes of defectives, the following prin- 
ciples have come to be regarded as fairly well established in 
application to state institutions : — 

a. State Control. — Under American conditions the proper 
agency for the administration and support of education and 
maintenance of defectives is the state, actuated by the com- 
bined motives of humanity and a policy of self-protection. 
Efficiency of state action can be fostered by the provision of 
organized channels for supervision by philanthropic agencies, 
and for systematic publicity, and possibly by the development 
of some form of non-political selection of employees. Under 
present conditions the non-salaried state boards of charities 
and corrections seem to provide good corrective supervision. 
Their efforts require supplementing in the shape of giving 
them means of providing the expert service which will test 
matters too intricate for laymen. Expert accountants to 
devise forms of accounting and reporting which lead to 
genuine publicity, medical experts to examine physical con- 



472 Educational Administration 

ditions, educational experts to pass on education offered, etc., 
are required.^' ^ 

b. Size and Grouping. — After certain fundamental classi- 
fications have been made as far as practicable, it is adminis- 
tratively and economically desirable that state institutions 
should be large, and on the cottage or colony type. Only 
thus can highly paid supervision, division of labor in 
instruction, and economy of management, be combined. In- 
stitutions should permit extensive classification within them- 
selves, but should be managed as a unit. Traditionally, many 
schools of this type grew up in cities, but, generally speaking, 
the reasons for their existence therein no longer exist. 

c. Administration. — As in the best of public school ser- 
vice, the final responsibility for general administration should 
rest with a board, either for an institution or for a group of 
similar institutions, which board should directly represent the 
public. The present practice of having the Governor appoint 
the members of such board seems the most effective. Of 
course the board may become political in character, but so 
may any state agency, and so, in the last analysis, may any 
organization depending on the state for support. The salaried 
board of control which has developed in Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
Iowa, and Kansas, coordinating and directing all institutions, 
has valuable features, if it can be made to command the same 
character of service of a disinterested character as the non- 
salaried boards. The success of this system will depend, in 
the long run, on the encouragement by the people of the 



1 In some countries like England the early establishment by philanthropy of 
institutions to care for the unfortunate, which afterward received aid from the 
state, has resulted in a semi-private form of school which frequently has the 
advantages of a sympathetic and interested administration that is not found in 
the state institution, but which may also lack efficiency and progressiveness. 
Supervision by the state has not always proven easy, partly because of a natural 
exclusiveness, partly because of a belief, sometimes justified, that state inspection 
was far from expert and discriminating. In some of the schools under private 
control, naturally, the most progressive work has been done, owing to their 
freedom to experiment. 

2 See Brackett, J. R., Supervision and Education in Charity, New York, 
1903. 



Education of Defectives 473 

state of recognized supervision by non-official or semi-official 
agencies of philanthropic bodies. 

Superintendent. — Under the board or boards there must 
be over each institution a general superintendent who is a 
recognized expert in his field. On him devolves the respon- 
sibility of nominating employees, recommending dismissals, and 
attending to the details of administration. The intrusion of 
politics into the management of benevolent or correctional in- 
stitutions has often suggested the advisability of having some 
form of civil service selection of teachers and custodians ; but 
civil service examinations, so far as can be devised, seem only a 
partial measure of the actual knowledge and skill required in 
these posts, and quite fail to test the even more important 
personal qualities which are indispensable in the institutional 
care of children. Under these circumstances, it has been 
found that selection and advancement under a responsible 
head, subject only to the approval of the board, proves most 
effective. 

d. Educational Aims. — The fundamental educational aims 
of all state institutions of a benevolent or correctional charac- 
ter should be directed toward procuring self-support in their 
wards. In the past this aim has been obscured by others, 
owing to the public failure to recognize that vocational 
efficiency is fundamental to cultural and social efficiency, 
and that these, without the former, are valueless. In a 
normal environment, the child procures this basal part of his 
education in the home and early apprenticeship, both of 
which are largely denied to the institution child, as they 
are denied to the child of the Indian, the negro, and the 
factory hand. Therefore the institution must make it up, 
and must seek to procure that vocational adjustment of the 
defective and handicapped to the world of work that is made 
in the careful home. Moral education, including religious train- 
ing making for social fitness, is next in order of importance, 
after which the child should be given the cultural opportunities 
that are possible. In all cases, of course, a working com- 
mand of the language, spoken and even written, seems 
fundamental to all of the above purposes, though it may be 



474 Educational Administration 

that in the past too much effort has been expended on the 
attainment of these ends, in view of the resulting vocational 
incapacity of the graduating pupil. 

e. Custodial Care. — Responsibility for the custody, over- 
sight, and further educational effort cannot be abrogated 
by the state at any specific age or under uniform conditions. 
Many defectives and some delinquents must long continue 
public wards, and social wisdom demands that the results of 
years of effort shall not be wasted by a subsequent period of 
neglect. After their school education, for example, the blind 
and the deaf should be encouraged to stand on their own 
feet, but the state should provide agencies which will pave 
the way to employment. In extreme cases, doubtless, the 
state itself should provide that employment. In the case of 
feeble-minded girls, it is becoming increasingly evident that 
the interests of society demand that after their period of 
education they shall be released only to responsible parties, 
who shall return them to state custody, if they can no longer 
exercise protecting oversight, and it is probable that increas- 
ing need will be found by the state for the provision of per- 
manent working colonies where these girls may for many 
years be controlled, protected, and made self-supporting. 
We have already seen the effectiveness of the parole systems 
in a few states in preserving to permanent usefulness the 
graduates of reform schools. Similar forms of oversight and 
direction in the case of defectives must be even more pro- 
longed, if the fundamental aims of the state in establishing 
education for those classes are carried to their logical con- 
clusion. This oversight will gradually differentiate the 
classes which, after their education, may profitably be kept 
at work and living amidst ordinary conditions, and those 
whom it will prove more effective and economical to keep as 
members of state colonies, made as nearly as possible self- 
supporting. 

Principles of Non-Institutional Education of Defective Chil- 
dren. — Schools of this character are still new, varied, and 
experimental. They deal with mild and educable cases 
rather than with the extreme. There is assumed the co- 



Education of Defectives 475 

operation of the home, which greatly affects the possibiHties 
of size, central location, and equipment of schools. These 
must necessarily be coordinated with public schools of 
ordinary type in point of management. The following 
principles are recognizable in present practice at its best : — 

a. Special Classes. — Each school system should recognize 
the existence of special classes of children who can be effec- 
tively educated and dealt with by segregation in special 
groups, sometimes temporary, sometimes permanent. The 
number of special classes of this sort can by no means be 
fixed at the present time, but these should undoubtedly be 
recognized : the deaf, the blind, the crippled, possibly the 
tubercular, and the varieties comprehended under the term 
" mentally subnormal." The conditions for establishing day 
classes for these are that there should be enough within 
practicable distance for transportation to the school to provide 
the type of school or class necessary. In some cases the 
day classes may give only the preliminary training, which 
will later have to be completed in some institution. Since 
the expense of this education is heavy, and those requiring it 
not distributed as are the sources of school revenue, it seems 
not unfair that the state should be asked to contribute a 
considerable portion, as it now does in several states in the 
case of day schools for the deaf, and in the case of special 
grants made in English schools for training defectives. 

b. Aims for Special Classes. — Special classes of this type 
will require the displacing of traditional aims and practices 
in educational procedure, and the development of new aims 
and methods. For these handicapped children, the desidera- 
tum is not merely fitting for the upper grades of the school, 
or for certain cultural studies. The aims must be far more 
fundamental and take account of the child's condition and 
probable future. As in the state institutions, vocational edu- 
cation must be considered in the case of the older children, 
and, in the case of all, the matter of physical upbuilding as 
far as is possible will assume first place. As regards general 
education, these schools should aim only to accomplish the 
fundamentally necessary conditions of reading, writing, and 



476 Educational Administration 

number, and beyond this develop only the lines of cultural 
work in reading, music, and the like, which it is confidently 
believed will function effectively. For the rest, society has 
the right to demand that the lives of these children be made 
as physically, vocationally, and morally effective as possible 
along simple lines. That system of education which merely 
attempts, by special devices, to move these children up the 
ladder of the ordinary elementary school course is wasteful 
and unprofitable, since this requires an expenditure that is 
unwarranted in view of its customary results. Ends must be 
consciously adjusted to the capacity of the child, must be 
practical, and the means adopted for their realization must 
be direct. 

c. Educational Adjuncts. — The administration of special 
classes requires special provision for nurses, for medical in- 
spection, and medical attention. Examinations of children 
who are much too old for their grades in elementary schools 
reveal a surprising number of defects, some irremediable, 
others capable of yielding to treatment. Children segregated 
out for special classes on account of dulness show a large 
percentage of defect, suggesting that a considerable part of 
the feeble mentality may be traceable to purely organic causes 
which are capable of remedy. But frequently the homes of 
these children are negligent, and unresponsive to medical 
advice. No measure for the relief of these children in large 
numbers is complete which does not contemplate the estab- 
lishment of an organized machinery that will embrace edu- 
cational agencies to assume charge of the child, medical skill 
to examine him, nurses to follow the case to the home and 
procure its cooperation, and even compulsory measures pro- 
viding for the severance of the control of the home, in case 
the latter fails to perform its duty toward the child. The 
provision of these agencies is not difficult or expensive when 
they exist as regular adjuncts of the school system, for it 
means, then, only a temporary setting apart of some of the 
time of doctor and nurse to give attention to the special cases 
which have been segregated from the main body. But it 
must be emphasized that the satisfactory conduct of special 



Education of Defectives 477 

classes on a truly constructive basis is practically impossible 
of realization without these adjuncts.^ 

Cost of Special Classes. — A large problem in the custody 
and education of defectives is that of cost, present and to 
come. In the case of delinquents and dependent children 
who are normal, the care of the child for a few years results 
in a self-supporting and contributing man or woman ; but in 
the case of the defective this stage may not be reached. 
Nevertheless, from the figures quoted earlier in the chapter 
it is evident that the education, especially of the deaf and 
blind, is enormously expensive, as contrasted with the educa- 
tion of the normal child, and the productive capacity of the 
defectives can never become very great. The maintenance 
of these very expensive institutions, which even yet do not 
meet required needs, is only possible through the existence of 
a strong humane sentiment which imperatively demands care 
and enlightenment for these peculiar classes of sufferers. 

The only solution of this problem lies through giving persist- 
ent and special attention to vocational education, discovering 
the lines along which the blind and deaf and crippled can de- 
velop their maximum capacity, and then to provide for those 
least able to prevail against the competitive conditions of life 
the location and tools under which they may realize the lives 

1 The systematic organization of special classes has been carried on for over 
a quarter of a century in Germany, forming the so-called auxiliary schools 
(Hilfschulen), of which there were, in 1907, 204, having 12,734 pupils, an average 
of 62 per school, and 18 to each teacher. These accommodate the children who 
are subnormal or weak-minded (Schwachsinnige) and who will probably not 
be restored to the grades. (Special classes also exist for those who cannot keep 
the regular grade pace, but who are not regarded as weak-minded.) The 
curricula in these auxiliary schools are general in their nature, intended to give 
the school arts and to supply a wide range of common knowledge and informa- 
tion, and to develop moral and religious ideas. A part of the curriculum is 
intended to " release " the mind which, by malnutrition or for other causes, has 
tended to become deadened or arrested. There is no vocational training, but 
the demand is strongly expressed for special continuation schools which shall 
take charge of these children in their period of vocational education, and give 
them the training which they cannot receive in the shops as they now exist. 
The physician is taken into counsel in fixing on the most suitable vocation for the 
pupil. — Maennel, "Auxiliary Schools of Germany," Bulletin (no. 3 of 1907) of 
United States Bureau of Education (translator, Dr. Dresslar) . 



478 Educational Administration 

that are best for them. Institutions for defective children 
must educate as fully and broadly as possible, but in cases of 
all kinds of defectives it becomes increasingly obvious that, 
while none except those whose presence is a menace to 
society are to be confined, opportunities for all in colonies, at 
productive industries, should be provided under state direc- 
tion, to the end that their productive capacity may be fully 
realized and their lives made as secure and comfortable as 
possible. 

Cure and Prevention. — Finally it must be noted that in 
this field the greatest work of social economy is not the edu- 
cation of defectives, and fitting them for such measure of 
social harmlessness and usefulness as is possible to their 
diminished lives, but the far more important one of prevent- 
ing the multiplication of the class. Many of the causes of 
defect are removable through application of medical science, 
where defects are connected with disease, specific disorder of 
organ, etc. Even certain forms of feeble-mindedness may 
yet yield to scientific knowledge regarding the skull and cer- 
tain functional disturbances of waste and nutrition. Others 
will be removed by attacking social causes. Tuberculosis, 
venereal diseases, insufficient nutrition, and alcoholism may 
be remedied on their purely social side. 

Some of these and other causes will have to be reached 
farther back. Many defectives are such before they appear 
in the world, owing to inheritances, of which science can at 
present take but imperfect account. Probably early steps in 
this direction, already realized in some quarters, are the pre- 
vention of marriage of tubercular, syphilitic, alcoholic, and 
epileptic people ; the isolation of feeble-minded women ; and 
the prohibition of marriage between congenitally deaf, blind, 
etc. The causes of congenital defect may in many cases be 
hard to trace and not scientifically understood ; but much ex- 
ploration in this direction is being done, and it can hardly be 
doubted that in time, with sufficient knowledge, society will 
be able to diminish at its sources the stream of defectives 
which even now begins seriously to tax our institutions. 



Education of Defectives 479 



REFERENCES 

Aikens, H. A. The Education of the Deaf and Dumb, Ed. Rev. 12: 
236. — Allen, Edw. E. Education of Defectives. In Butler's Education 
in the United States, 2:769 (with bibliography). — Bancroft, Miss M. 
Notes on Mentally Defective Children, Proc. N. E. A. 1898:1040. — 
Brackett, J. R. Supervision and Education in Charity, New York, 1903. 

— Brandt, F. B. The State in its Relation to the Defective Child, Proc. 
N. E. A. 1901:876. — Chappie, B. P. What is Minnesota doing for 
Blind Children? Proc. N. E. A. 1902:840. — Chrisman, O. Sight and 
Hearing in Relation to Education, Proc. N. E. A. 1904: 939. — Ellis, H. 
The Criminal. London, 1890. — Fernald, W. E. Feeble-minded Chil- 
dren. Boston, 1897. — Greeley, A. W. Higher Deaf Mute Education in 
the United States, Rev. of Rev. 16: 57. — Hall, G. S. Adolescence, 237 
et seq. New York, 1902. — Henderson, C. R. Dependent, Defective, and 
Delinquent Children. Boston, 1893. — Johnson, A. Concerning a Form 
of Degeneracy, Am. Jour, of Soc. 4: 326, 463. — Johnstone, E. R. The 
Schools for the Feeble-minded, Proc. N. E. A. 1905:903. — Johnson, 
G. A. Contributions to the Psychology and Pedagogy of Feeble-minded 
Children, Ped. Sem. 3:246. — Lincoln, D. F. The Education of the 
Feeble-minded in the United States, Rep. of Com. of Ed. 1902:2157. 

— Miinsterberg, E. Principles of Public Charity and Private Philanthropy 
in Germany, Am. Jour, of Soc. 2 : 589, 680. — Powell, F. M. Care of the 
Feeble-minded. Boston, 1898. • — ^ Shuttleworth, G. E. Mentally Deficient 
Children. London, 1895. — Spencer, R. C. The Wisconsin Pubhc Day 
Schools for the Deaf, Proc. N. E. A. 1898: 1056. — Stickney, L. The 
London Schools and the Poor, Ed. Rev. 24: 199. — Talbot, E. S. De- 
generacy: its Causes, Signs, and Results. London, 1901. — Tate, J. N. 
What is Minnesota doing for her Deaf Children? Proc. N. E. A. 1902: 
836. — Tuckwell, G. M. The State and its Children. London, 1894.— 
Warner, A. G. American Charities. New York, 1894. — Wylie, A. R. F. 
On the Psychology and Pedagogy of the Bhnd, Ped. Sem. 9: 127; Rep. 
of Com. of Ed. 1899-1900: 1202 and 1341 (for some general views). — 
Maennel, B. The Auxiliary Schools of Germany, tr. by F. Dresslar, Bui. 
of Bur. of Ed. Washington, 1907. See also annual volumes of Ped, 
Sem., Journal of Psycho-^sthenics, Proc. N. E. A., and Proc. of Nat. 
Conf. of Char, and Cor,, for much additional material. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

Administration of Evening and Continuation Schools 

Origins. — The movement to extend advantages of educa- 
tion to those who must give a considerable part of their time 
to labor in their callings is a comparatively new one. Even- 
ing schools and various forms of correspondence and exten- 
sion education had beginnings before the nineteenth century, 
but usually under commercial or philanthropic auspices. 
Within the last half century, however, in European countries 
and in America a variety of forms of education, more or less 
under public support, have developed, of which the evening 
school is the most conspicuous. 

Continuation Work (embracing the types of education ad- 
ministered by the evening schools, as well as some others) 
arises in response to the demand that comes from young 
people who have already entered upon their vocational 
careers and who desire to still further partake of the advan- 
tages of education. Ordinarily it assumes three forms : (a) 
Evening schools for the ilHterate or relatively uneducated 
who are obliged to work, but who either voluntarily or under 
compulsion of law seek to acquire some proficiency in read- 
ing, writing, number, or other elementary school studies. (/^) 
For those who, having already a fair education, desire to pur- 
sue advanced studies of a cultural nature in their leisure time. 
For these evening high schools exist, as well as special 
courses in literature, history, music, art, and other subjects of 
a cultural nature, (c) Evening schools whose dominating 
aim is vocational. In England and Germany these prevail 
in great variety. In most cases they devote themselves to 
the technical studies which underlie various forms of in- 
dustry, as applied art, applied science, and special forms of 

480 



Evening and Cojitinuation Schools 481 

industrial technique, or to the commercial subjects. In a 
few cases they have industrial training in a very direct and 
objective fashion. Frequently, especially in Germany, the 
classes are so arranged that the student may study the tech- 
nical aspects of the vocation that he is engaged in during the 
day as an apprentice. In many other cases, of course, these 
students study the subjects which will lead them into ad- 
vanced stages of their callings or into others of higher class 
and better compensation. 

Extent. — In 1905-1906 the evening schools of the cities 
with over 8000 population in the United States were reported 
as having a total attendance of over 314,000 pupils, almost 
half as many as were enrolled in the public high schools of 
the country, and a trifle more than the total enrolment in 
public high schools of cities of the above size. Twice as 
many men and boys are enrolled as women and girls, where- 
as in the pubHc high schools the ratio of girls to boys 
is as three to two. The number of teachers in the evening 
schools is reported as 7947, an average of one for each 42 
pupils enrolled. The average daily attendance in these 
evening schools was only 129,000, or but 41 per cent on 
enrolment. 

In the report of the Commissioner of Education for 1903- 
1904 it is reported that there were 32 cities in which distinc- 
tively evening high schools were conducted. These had 59 
schools, with 426 teachers and an enrolment of 40,568 pupils. 
But it is not certain that all of these maintained true high 
school standards, nor can it be said that their work was 
mainly cultural. An examination of the curricula of a few of 
them shows that they incline to give technical work in many 
cases, doubtless in response to the demand for vocational 
training. Commercial classes, especially, are found in schools 
of this type. 

Special Types of evening schools have developed in many 
cities to meet the demands of recent immigrants. Naturally, 
these give their greatest attention to the teaching of English, 
in oral and written forms. In 1903-1904 61.3 per cent of 
the enrolment of the evening schools of Chicago were foreign 



482 Educatio7tal Administration 

born ; in New York, 30.2 per cent ; in Philadelphia, 28.4 per 
cent ; in Jersey City, 26.8 per cent.^ 

The Ages of the Students in attendance at evening schools 
is naturally dependent upon the curricula offered by these 
schools. The Chicago evening schools report that more than 
a third of their students are over twenty-one, which fact is 
closely associated with the large foreign element in the even- 
ing classes. Usually, however, less than 10 per cent of the 
pupils are above twenty, the large numbers being fifteen, six- 
teen, and seventeen years of age. In most cities only a 
comparatively small percentage of the children of a given 
age attend evening school, A special study of this subject 
shows that in some fourteen cities reporting the ages of 
pupils in attendance, the average enrolment of children of the 
age of fifteen, was only 6 per cent of all children of that age 
in these cities ; of sixteen, 5 per cent ; of seventeen, 3 per cent. 
But in one or two cities where, owing to a combination of 
conditions, such as strict enforcement of the law requiring 
all working children under sixteen who had a deficient edu- 
cation to attend evening school, and also to the fact that 
much attractive industrial work was presented, the ratio of 
enrolment to total number of children was very different. 
In Springfield, for example, of all children aged fifteen, 25 
per cent were enrolled in the evening schools ; of those aged 
sixteen, 31 per cent; and of those aged seventeen, 28 per 
cent ; and similarly for the higher ages. 

Teaching Force. — Naturally, it has proven impossible to 
develop a special teaching force for the evening schools. 
They hold from 60 to 120 sessions per year, and the length 
of each session rarely exceeds two hours. Therefore, except 
in some cases for supervision, it has proven impracticable to 
obtain teachers who could give their entire time and effort to 
this work. Two types of teachers have been employed. In 
some cases business men, lawyers with little practice, college 
students, and others who donotteach during the day ; in others 
certificated teachers have been demanded, most of whom 
during the day must teach in the public schools. Both plans 

^ Report of Commissioner of Education, 1904 : 1306. 



Evening and Continuation Schools 483 

involve difficulties in practice ; business, professional, and col- 
lege men frequently do not know much about teaching and the 
making of special adaptations of subject-matter for their learn- 
ers ; and the regular teachers who have put in a full day in 
class work are often in poor physical condition for two hours 
of evening teaching. Another difficulty has been encoun- 
tered in the fact that the day school teachers, dealing in the 
evening with more mature pupils, endeavor to teach them by 
methods adapted to younger children, and so fail to realize 
their pedagogical opportunities. 

The Expense of maintaining evening schools is mainly a mat- 
ter of teachers' salaries. Public school buildings are used, 
and some shght additional charges must be met for light, heat, 
and janitor service. Teachers are usually paid by the night, 
the compensation ranging from $2 for ordinary work to as 
much as ^5 per night for supervisors and special teachers 
in high schools. To some extent the per capita cost is a vari- 
able factor depending upon the number of full classes that 
can be maintained, since, given the attempt to keep stated 
grades and subjects open, the cost is the same for small as 
for large classes. In Cleveland, for example, the per capita 
cost for a number of years ranged from ;^5 to ^8 ; but 
in 1905, when the character and extent of attendance 
materially improved, almost doubling, in fact, the per capita 
cost fell to ^2.81. Some other cities report the per capita 
cost as much greater than the above. New York finds her 
evening schools for 1906- 1907, having an average attendance 
of 40,424, to cost ^i 5.63 per capita ; in Buffalo, the cost in 1905 
was 1^4.14 for each pupil enrolled, and ^7.00 for each one in 
average daily attendance ; in Philadelphia, for the same year, 
^4.16; in Providence, ^13.47 on average number belonging. 
In Cambridge the per capita cost for pupils in the Mechanical 
Drawing Evening School was (on average attendance) ^16.56 ; 
in the High School, $\2\ and in the several elementary 
schools, ranged from ^10 to ^14. 

In the public American evening schools it is not customary 
to find fees charged, except in the industrial or technical 
schools, where a small sum is required for supplies. 



484 Educational Administration 

Problems. — Evening schools in the United States are still 
in the experimental stage of development, and naturally they 
are confronted by many problems. The conviction is wide- 
spread that they embody educational opportunities which may 
not be neglected, that they should contribute to the growth of 
a desire for advanced education along many lines, and that 
they should enable the community to realize more fully on the 
cost of the enormous plants in the shape of buildings, ma- 
chinery, equipment, and libraries which are available. As 
the working day shortens, as the demands for vocational ef- 
ficiency rise, as the appreciation of culture and civic training 
deepens, as, in the city, the demand for wholesome opportu- 
nities for recreation and physical development increase, the 
evening schools, in many forms, will find themselves the 
agencies for ministering to these genuine educational demands. 

a. Problem of Teachers. — The most serious problem which 
confronts the evening school at present is in the matter of 
supplying teachers. It has previously been pointed out that 
in the main the evening schools must depend on the services 
of those who work during the day, whether it chooses its 
teaching force from certificated teachers or from well-equipped 
people from other callings. In either case the evening school 
may suffer from the fact that its teachers have already ex- 
hausted their best energies. It may also suffer because the 
shortness of the time given by any teacher to this work re- 
duces the disposition to study its technique and to devise im- 
proved methods of deahng with it. Even in teaching the 
ordinary subjects, the day school teacher frequently fails to 
make the necessary adaptations to the changed ages, experi- 
ences, and development of the evening school students. Busi- 
ness and professional men may quite fail to learn the art of 
teaching their subject, with the result that they are not able 
to make necessary adaptations. 

In rendering efficient the teaching forces of the evening 
schools, two considerations are important. The even- 
ing schools should be so coordinated with the day schools, 
that a regular teacher should be compensated for his service 
in both, taken together. That is, if a given teacher has as 



Evening and Co7itinuation Schools 485 

part of his work teaching in evening schools for two hours, 
four days in the week, his days' work should be proportion- 
ately reduced until it can be assured that he has for both 
kinds the requisite energy, and that neither is to suffer. At 
present, while some of the day school teachers who also en- 
gage in evening school work in order to enlarge their incomes 
are physically and intellectually able to carry both kinds tem- 
porarily without harm to themselves or to those whom they 
teach, it can hardly be contended that, in the long run, this is 
the most profitable course. The growth of a teacher demands 
leisure for study and recreation, and for the preparation of 
teaching materials. Teachers who come into the schools 
with good equipment may, for a short time, make a very good 
showing while carrying both day and evening school work, 
but except in rare cases they must eventually deteriorate or 
at least cease to grow. On the other hand, if the work of the 
evening schools were administratively coordinated with that 
of the day schools, it would be possible to make for each 
teacher a combination of day and evening school work which 
would give the maximum of result, and enable the teacher to 
give needed study to both phases. This is the more possible 
when it is recalled that the evening schools receive mainly 
older students, who would naturally be taught by upper grade 
teachers giving departmental work or by high school teachers 
or specialists. Within certain limits, the same conditions could 
be made to apply to teachers employed from among business 
or professional men or from the industries. It could be made 
a condition of employment that the teacher so engaged should 
prove that his work during the daytime should not be so exact- 
ing and extensive as to prevent his making adequate preparation 
for the evening teaching, or from bringing to it a sufficient 
reserve of energy. 

b. Supervision. — The second consideration in regard to 
effective teaching is to be found in the character of the su- 
pervision exercised. Owing to its peculiar character, evening 
school work requires especially careful organization and some 
personal contact with those who take it, to the end that 
individual adjustments may be made. Furthermore, owing 



486 Educational Administration 

to the lack of special preparation, evening school teachers 
should have more than the average of direction and super- 
vision. The adjustments of courses to the needs of varying 
classes of students, the desirability of some contact of the 
school with the working environment, if not with the home, of 
the pupil, and the necessity of rapidly adapting a multitude of 
variously prepared teachers to their work, — all these seem to 
make demands for a type of supervision such as will require 
the undivided attention and efforts of those who do it. In 
other words, the effective supervision of evening school work 
is not to be accomplished by some one who is also engaged in 
exacting work during the day. For every fifteen or twenty 
evening school teachers the circumstances demand that there 
should be one supervisor, director, or principal, who can give 
practically undivided attention to this work. 

c. Curriculum. — The third large problem confronting the 
evening school has to do with the character of the work to be 
given. In European countries there is a strong demand for 
vocational or technical work in these schools, especially of 
the kinds that will supplement the practical pursuits of the 
student. At present no limits can be set to the possibilities 
of the development of this kind of work ; the industrial de- 
mands of the age require technical knowledge of a kind 
which the average person can acquire only after he has 
entered industry of some sort. To a considerable extent the 
evening high schools of the larger cities have taken up this 
form of education. But in time it can hardly be doubted 
this will be but one phase demanding consideration. The 
growth of the demand for higher culture will also, to some 
extent, have to be met by the evening schools. 

In Springfield instruction in the trades at public expense 
began in 1898. 

" Evening classes were organized to meet in the building of the Me- 
chanic Arts High School, the valuable equipment of which could thus be 
put to double use. There were two classes formed in tool making and one 
in plumbing. Each class met three times a week, from 7.15 to 9.15, for 
five months. These classes proved to be very successful. Not only was 
the instruction admitted to be of very great value to the men who received 



Evening and Continuation Schools 487 

it, but it was also admitted to be of value to the trades represented." — 
Springfield Report, 1 904 : 1 2 1 . 

" During the past three years the growth of this school has been exceed- 
ingly encouraging. It will be seen that the work of this school now in- 
cludes thorough instruction in mechanical drawing, machine shop practice, 
tool making, plumbing, joinery and wood-turning, pattern making, shop 
mathematics, and electricity. The enrolment in these classes amounts to 
about three hundred, and is remarkably constant, showing a much higher 
percentage of attendance than is common in the evening schools." — Ibid., 
p. 122. 

New York City at present maintains four evening trade 
schools, two using the equipment of the manual training high 
schools, and two established especially for negroes. Carpen- 
try and joinery, cabinet making, pattern making, blacksmith- 
ing, plumbing, machine-shop work, printing and typesetting, 
electric wiring and installation, bookbinding, dressmaking, 
and millinery are the trades taught in these schools. 

In the New York evening schools the teaching of foreign- 
ers is an important feature. During the year 1906-1907 
45,485 non-English-speaking pupils were in the schools. 

" The great majority of these pupils, upon entering, were unable to 
speak a word of English. The progress made during the term by most of 
them is astonishing. Feeling the necessity of having at least a little 
knowledge of our language, they are most earnest in their work, and, as far 
as possible, most regular in their attendance. In a few months they are 
usually able to read and write English fairly well and to speak it so as to be 
understood." 

The district superintendent in charge of the evening work 
recommends the establishment of a normal course for those 
who teach English to foreigners, such normal classes to be 
offered in two or more of the evening high schools. 

d. Text-books. — Another yet unsolved problem in con- 
nection with evening schools has to do with the text-books. 
In almost all cases it has been necessary to use the same 
kind of text-books that are used in the day schools. In 
some cases, as in the teaching of EngHsh to foreigners, this 
is unsatisfactory and wasteful. But even in the technical 
subjects, and the special culture subjects, text-books espe- 
cially adapted to evening school work are very much desired 



488 Educational Administration 

and are not yet to be found. It is evident that such books 
should be compendious, should provide an abundance of 
easily graduated work for students to read and digest by 
themselves. In the correspondence schools, it is well known, 
special texts have been devised in all subjects, and these 
have become, by simplicity of language and copiousness of 
illustration, of such a character that many students work 
ahead in them successfully. But the grammars, the arith- 
metics, the texts in physics, and other phases of applied 
science used in the evening schools have not yet developed 
these qualities. It should be recognized, that, just as in the 
day schools, the best American practice has taught the pupil 
to rely largely upon himself, and to obtain much of his infor- 
mation from the text-book ; so, in the evening schools where 
there must be relatively much more outside preparation, and 
shorter recitation periods, and where the students are more 
mature, the text-books, by their abundance of illustration, 
easy grading of steps, and clear pedagogical character of 
presentation, should teach the student more and more to rely 
upon himself and upon his material aids. 

e. Pedagogic Differentiation. — A iif th problem which is 
not peculiar to the evening schools is found in connection 
with the differentiation, on a pedagogical, as well as content, 
basis of the kinds of opportunities offered. For example, there 
can be little doubt that it will eventually become the function 
of those schools to offer large varieties of lectures, illustrated 
and otherwise, of music recitals, of recreative exercises, and 
even of forms of dramatic entertainment. In many English 
schools, opportunities for swimming, athletics, dancing, and 
reading are offered. Now the presentation of these involves 
a pedagogic method essentially different from that required, 
for example, in the vocational or academic subjects. Exami- 
nations cannot be held, nor other tests very well imposed; 
nevertheless some efforts must be made to have such courses 
taken only by those who have a permanent interest, and who 
are not merely trying to make futile play of their opportu- 
nities. Even in many of the academic subjects it may well 
be doubted if a different pedagogic method may not be de- 



Evening and Continuation Schools 489 

sirable. Certainly such subjects as history, Hterature, social 
science, and art must be presented in ways that are fre- 
quently free from formalism and the rigidity that examina- 
tion tests require. They are supposed, in some measure at 
least, to stimulate interest, awaken sympathetic response, and 
arouse sentiment, and cannot be treated as one would treat 
mechanical drawing, mathematics, and wood working. 

In other words, there must be devised fundamental peda- 
gogic differences in method as well as in content, according 
to the end to be subserved by these studies. 

f. Weekly Programme. — Experience shows that much 
evening school work does not presuppose outside study. In 
other words, all the effort put forth by the student in learn- 
ing is directly under the teacher. Where schools are kept 
open, e.g., three evenings in the week, it is claimed that 
students find little time for outside preparation. It should 
be evident that for many kinds of school work (not for all) 
this arrangement is highly uneconomical. As in correspond- 
ence work, it should be the virtue of evening classes that 
they should stimulate and provide the means for outside 
study and self-help. To fail to do this on the ground that 
the student has insufficient time is to miss an important end 
of evening school instruction. If attendance three evenings per 
week is too much for the student, in connection with suitable 
outside preparation, better that he should come but one and 
devote the remaining two to study at home. Thus the teacher 
could double or triple the number of pupils he could meet in 
the week. There is no inherent reason why an evening school 
student should report in the classroom every evening that it 
is open ; better that he belong to a group which utiHze the 
school meeting only for the purpose of supplementing and 
clearing up study done at home. The value of this arrange- 
ment would be found not only in its economy; it should 
prove helpful in producing the self-reliance and capacity for 
independent study which are necessary in the person who is 
to rise either culturally or vocationally. 

Irregular Attendance. — The most formidable immediate 
obstacle with which evening schools have to contend is 



490 Educational Administration 

irregular attendance. This evil is especially keenly felt in 
American cities, where tuition is free, for under these cir- 
cumstances many students are tempted to enroll who have 
either insufficient preparation or who lack interest to sustain 
them through a course of careful work. In foreign coun- 
tries, where fees are charged, the irregular student has, of 
course, contributed something to the support of the school. 
In England the experiment has many times been tried of 
charging a fee at the beginning of the course which should 
be refunded in the case of all students who might make a 
certain percentage of attendance. In Germany, of course, 
attendance up to seventeen or eighteen is compulsory in 
most states, so this problem is not felt. In England many 
feel that attendance will not be satisfactory until it shall 
have been made compulsory. Except in the case of youths 
below eighteen, of inferior educational standard, it is improb- 
able that America can have compulsory evening school attend- 
ance for many years to come. 

Practical Curricula. — Within certain limits it is possible 
to meet the problem of irregular attendance within the 
schools themselves. {a) The work offered must be suffi- 
ciently varied and practical as to actually meet the needs 
of the students who present themselves. In many places the 
courses in the evening schools are dull, formal, and unattrac- 
tive, and students taking them for a time grow to feel that 
the work they are doing is futile, and does not function in 
their lives. For example, many youths of moderate educa- 
tion grow ambitious in later years to improve themselves in 
English ; but the work offered in the evening schools is 
formal grammar of a sort which does not actually reenforce 
the practical English of the students. It is now generally 
felt that the development of vocational, cultural, and social 
subjects on a vital and interesting plane can serve to make 
evening school work much more attractive and profitable for 
the students. 

{F) Classification. — Having offered in the schools a variety 
of work adapted as far as practicable to varying capacities 
and interests, it becomes the business of the schools to make 



Evening and Continuation Schools 491 

careful classification of the students to determine their fitness 
for and interest in the work they propose to take. Under 
present conditions of administration it is often quite diffi- 
cult to accomplish this, and it is probable that it can only 
be effectively done by having special supervisors devote 
considerable time to the subject. This preliminary testing 
cannot be based solely, or even mainly, on written exami- 
nations. Credentials from former schools, statements from 
employers, evidences of interests of various sorts should be 
sought. It is conceivable, for example, that in an evening 
school system at least the evenings of one week might very 
profitably be given to these preliminary examinations, to the 
end that preliminary selection of subjects might be carried 
on effectively. The waste of energy involved in dealing 
with classes after school has started, is very considerable. 
If membership falls below a certain point, the merging or 
consoHdation of classes is quite necessary ; but this greatly 
interferes with those who stay, as many of them must 
continue their work under a new teacher whose special 
methods are unfamiliar. 

REFERENCES 

(A bibliography is found at the end of Jones, A. J., Continuation 
Schools in the United States, Bull, of Bur. of Ed. no. i, 1907.) — 
Balliet, T. The Organization of a System of Evening Schools, Proc. 
N E. A. 1904:278. — Buttrick, H. E. The True Function of the Even- 
ing High School, Sch. Rev. 12 : 588. — Creasey, C. H. Technical Edu- 
cation in Evening Schools. London, 1905. — Dexter, E. G. Education 
in the United States. New York, 1904. — Foos, C. S. Evening High 
Schools, Ed. 24: 16. — Jones, A. J. (see above). — Meyer, E. C. Industrial 
Education and Industrial Conditions in Germany, Special Consular Re- 
ports, 1905, vol. 33. — Sadler, M. Continuation Schools. Manchester, 
1907. — Shadwell, A. Industrial Efficiency. London and New York, 
1906. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

Compulsory Education and Child Labor Legislation 

L compulsory education 

The need for compulsory education is found in the un- 
willingness or inability of some parents to procure educa- 
tional advantages for their children. The power of the 
state is enlisted to procure to neglected and exploited chil- 
dren their rights to a protected childhood and to suitable 
training. Traditionally, the right of the parent over his 
child, which was stronger in ancient than in modern times, 
has been supposed to include not only the right of deter- 
mining the kind of education which should be given, but 
even the power of denying any education at all ; and a long 
struggle has been necessary to establish the superior claim 
of society. The situation has been complicated by the fact 
that under traditional forms of industry, the child was en- 
listed, to some extent, in the productive processes carried on 
in the home, and hence could, to some extent, combine edu- 
cation and work ; while, under most modern forms of labor, 
the child cannot combine school attendance with wage-earn- 
ing. The demand for compulsory education legislation has 
had its source partly in recognition of the fact that if the 
child is to have an education, his educational rights must 
be enforced during all the time that schools are in session, a 
condition which arouses opposition on the part of parents who 
undervalue education. 

Industrial Exploitation, however, is the principal cause of 
the campaign for child protection through education. The 
division of labor under the factory system, the use of ma- 
chinery, and the wage system have made possible the use 
of children in ways so destructive of their physical, moral, 

492 



Compulsory Education 493 

and intellectual well-being as to demand from society pro- 
tective measures. This form of exploitation took children 
from their homes for the entire day, worked them in gangs, 
deprived them of play, subjected them to the oppression of 
the monotony of machines, and defeated all the growth pro- 
cesses of childhood. In compulsory attendance at school 
not merely for the purpose of education, but to preserve a 
more favorable environment during childhood, humanitarians 
have found an important measure of social economy.^ 

Examples of Legislation affecting compulsory attendance 
show much variation among different states. Nearly all the 
states have at some time placed on the statute books some 
law, but nearly all of them likewise have found their first 
efforts in this direction quite without effect. Because this 
represents a field in which social economy and inherited tra- 
ditions as well as selfishness clash, progress has been slow and 
legislation has so far at times outrun public opinion that the 
laws have remained quite unenforced. But there has been 
in all civilized countries a more or less steady growth of wise 
opinion ; and the results are found in legislation that is en- 
forceable, and in large measure is actually being carried out. 
Some digests of the laws of states prominent in this regard 
will exhibit the progress made up to date. 

New York. — The compulsory education law of New York provides that 
every child from eight to sixteen years of age must attend school, provided 
he be in fit mental and physical condition ; except that from fourteen to six- 
teen children who are regularly employed and who have met certain educa- 
tional requirements may be excused. In cities of the first and second class, 

^ " Compulsory education by the state and prohibition of child labor are 
policies undoubtedly socialistic in character. They assert the supremacy of the 
state's interest in the child as against any opposing interest of the parent. The 
American people have never been afraid of socialism to this extent, and within 
the last ten years it has greatly extended both compulsory education and the pro- 
hibition of child labor between ten and fourteen years of age. . . . Not much 
difficulty has been encountered in the courts. The constitutionality of both com- 
pulsory school attendance and of the restriction of child employment in the 
interest of health, intelligence, morals, and citizenship is everywhere upheld." 
A special difficulty is encountered in the case of dependent parents. The state 
should aid these rather than permit them to become pubHc charges during the 
time their children are being educated. — Giddings, "The Social and Legal 
Aspect of Compulsory Education and Child Labor, in Proc. N. E. A. 1905 : iii. 



494 Educational Administratioit 

however, the child from fourteen to sixteen who has not completed a 
prescribed course of study in the elementary schools shall attend evening 
school for at least six hours per week for sixteen weeks each year until he 
is sixteen. In the case of a child under sixteen years of age and not in 
cities of the classes described above, it is prohibited to employ him unless 
he present a certificate signed by the Superintendent of Schools showing 
that during the year preceding the application for the labor certificate he has 
attended school at least one hundred and thirty days and has the funda- 
mentals of an elementary school education. ^ It is made mandatory upon 
school boards to appoint attendance officers. 

Massachusetts. — The important provisions of the Massachusetts law 
are : — 

a. Attendance at a day school is compulsory for all children between 
eight and fourteen, and between fourteen and sixteen for all who cannot 
read and write the English language. 

b. Attendance at a private school for an equal length of time will be ac- 
cepted as equivalent, provided the school committee is satisfied that the 
quality of work therein is equal to that of the public schools. 

c. In case of children mentally or physically disqualified to attend or- 
dinary schools, it is nevertheless compulsory to send them to other institu- 
tions if these exist of a character enabling them to deal with the defects. 

d. Every city and town is obliged to appoint a truant officer, who also 
acts as probation officer. 

e. By a late revision of the law an attempt is made to define " ability to 
read and write English," as equalling, for 1906, the amount required for 
admission to the second grade ; for 1907, admission to the third grade ; 
and thereafter, admission to the fourth grade. 

Maine. — The law of Maine makes attendance at school for every child 
between the seventh and fifteenth anniversaries of his birth compulsory as 
long as such school is in session, or he must attend private school an equiva- 
lent time, which private school must be approved by the superintending 
committee, and " children shall not be credited with attendance at a private 
school until a certificate showing their names, residences, and attendance 
at such school signed by the person or persons having such school in charge 
shall be filed with the school officials of the town in which such children 
reside." A fine on parents is the penalty for non-compliance with the law. 
It is made permissive to provide truant ofllicers. 

Connecticut. — The Connecticut law has two peculiar features. In the 
first place, the enforcement of the law is not left to local authorities, but is 
in charge of a state agent appointed by the State Board of Education, and 
who enforces the law through local committees and otherwise. In the 
second place, an attempt is made to pass on the quality of the private 
schools whose teaching is taken in lieu of the work of the public school. 
Private schools will not be recognized as equivalent of public schools un- 

^ In New York City this must involve admission to the fifth grade. 



Compulsory Education 495 

less they keep registers at all times open to the agents of the state boards 
of education and shall make all reports (except as to expenses) required 
by the state agents. 

The Ohio Law provides that all children from eight to fourteen years shall 
attend school for at least twenty-four weeks ; and shall attend from the 
first week unless excused by the Superintendent ; and all children under 
sixteen shall attend school unless regularly employed. It is forbidden to em- 
ploy children between fourteen and sixteen, unless schooling certificates are 
shown, issued by the Superintendent, and showing that the child has com- 
pleted the ordinary school studies. The law also provides for special 
truant officers : officers with this function alone in all city districts ; and 
in village and country districts local constables or others must be 
designated as truant officers. The truant officer is obliged to keep records 
of his investigations and to report daily to the Superintendent. 

Colorado. — The following special features are found in the compulsory 
education law of Colorado : — 

a. Every child between 8 and i6 must attend school the full time 
that such schools are in session, exceptions being children who have 
finished the eighth grade, children who are needed for their parents' support, 
if over fourteen, and some other cases. 

b. If the parent is not able, by reason of poverty, to properly clothe 
any such child, it shall be the duty of the School Board of the proper dis- 
trict, upon the fact being shown to their satisfaction, to furnish the neces- 
sary clothing and pay for same out of the funds of the school district. 

c. It is made the duty of the school director to prosecute cases of viola- 
tion of the law, and in case of neglect a penalty may be imposed upon him. 

d. In the case of a child unable to attend school because his help is 
needed at home, the truant officer shall report that fact to the authorities 
charged with relief of the poor, who shall provide aid ; but in this case the 
child shall not be compelled to attend school more than three hours per 
day. 

e. A second conviction under this law shall involve imprisonment as 
well as fine as a penalty. 

/. In all districts of the first and second class the school authorities 
must appoint truant officers, who have extensive police powers, and may 
visit places where children are employed, etc. 

Principles. — The history of the development of laws re- 
garding compulsory education is varied, and illustrates the 
difficulties encountered when legislation, resting on general 
principles, tends to outrun the progress of pubHc opinion as 
to its enforcement in particular cases. Every step in the 
laws represented above, which exhibit the best of legisla- 
tion on compulsory education, has only been attained as the 
result of long effort, stimulated by the consciousness of the 



496 Educational Administration 

failure of the laws that had been in vogue before. Sum- 
marized, the above legislation represents acceptance of the 
following principles, without which compulsory education can 
hardly be said to exist : — 

a. Age. — All children should be compelled to attend 
school until they are fourteen, and, if they have not reached 
a certain standard, until they are sixteen. This means that 
all should attend public, private, or state schools (for delin- 
quents or defectives), or be taught under approved private 
auspices. 

b. State Oversight of Private School Attendance. — Where 
private schools are accepted as meeting the needs of attend- 
ance, the state should have means of preserving records of at- 
tendance, and ultimately of passing on the quality of the work 
done. Similarly for private or home teaching. The logic 
underlying all attempts at enforcing compulsory education 
demands this. 

c. Amount of Attendance. — Attendance at school must be 
defined by amount of time. In the early history of legisla- 
tion in most states it was customary to prescribe a certain 
number of weeks. But without prescription as to when 
these weeks should be, the parents were always able to pro- 
vide excuses and to put off enforcement of the law with 
promises. The best of the recent laws recognize that only 
full attendance during the entire time that school is in session 
can effectively provide for the necessities of the compulsory 
education. In one case we have noticed the fixing of a fine 
which -progressively increases in proportion to the number of 
weeks the children are allowed to remain out of school. 

d. Safeguarding Exceptions. — In all cases the law must 
provide for exceptions. Children who are not well physically, 
those who cannot find places in the schools, who have too great 
a distance to travel, and children who are mentally unfit for the 
ordinary school, and cannot be accommodated in special institu- 
tions, must be considered. In many states with weak legisla- 
tion it is also customary to provide for exceptions in the case 
of families that need the aid of the children for self-support, 
or in case of children who are taught at home. Modern and 



Compulsory Education 497 

progressive legislation refuses to recognize parental need as 
a factor in the case of children under fourteen. If parents 
are needy, other means must be found to provide for them, 
than through depriving the child of its educational heritage. 
As to the authorities to decide on the validity of exceptions, 
practice is yet much divided ; but the need of a wise and dis- 
interested agency for this is evident. 

e. Special Officers for Enforcement. — The enforcement of 
the compulsory education law demands the existence of special 
truant officers. In cities, these should be special officers 
attached to the schools, but in rural or village districts, some 
one should receive special appointment, as the constable. 
Many authorities believe that this matter of enforcing the 
law should be centralized, as in Connecticut; but others feel 
that with proper inspection it can be performed locally. The 
truant officers must have large police powers of inspecting 
mills, of arresting children found away from home and school, 
and of procuring the conviction for disorderly conduct of 
children found incorrigible. 

/. Standards of Educational Attainment. — The best laws 
now provide for the continued attendance at school of chil- 
dren below a certain educational standard, until they reach 
the age of sixteen. But the enforcement of this law is fre- 
quently negatived, owing to the looseness of the standard. 
By some judges very little educational ability will suffice to 
meet the test ("ability to read and write English"). On the 
other hand, we have noticed that the new laws of Massachu- 
setts and New York (as enforced in New York City) make 
provision for a fairly exact testing in this matter, based on 
the requirements for admission to given grades. New York 
and Massachusetts also permit the substitution of certain 
amounts of evening school work for this compulsory attend- 
ance, but the execution of the law is frequently impeded, 
owing to administrative difficulties, even in the largest 
cities. 

Private School Attendance. — The enforcement of com- 
pulsory education laws is greatly complicated by the existence 
of private schools over which the state exercises no inspection. 



498 EdMcaiional Administration 

In many cities twenty-five per cent or more of the children 
attend private schools, whose teachers are not certificated by 
the state, whose courses of study are not examined, and whose 
work is not inspected. Theoretically, parents have the right 
in many states to keep their children at schools not public 
for the prescribed minimum of time, in which schools the 
children may receive practically no education. Under these 
circumstances the state is debarred from passing on the quality 
of education given. So far, in the United States no state is 
able to enforce educational standards in private schools, being 
able to make only the same requirement as in the public 
schools, which is based on length of time attending. It is 
well known, of course, that in Europe, outside of England, 
where the rights of individual conscience are very extensively 
recognized, private schools are inspected and must reach the 
standards prescribed for public schools, Massachusetts, 
Connecticut, and Rhode Island have already recognized the 
importance of public inspection, and have provisions in their 
laws which enable them in some measure to supervise private 
schools. 

Aid to Parents. — There is presupposed a free education, 
which has been offered in American schools for many years. 
But the proponents have found that the logic of the system 
of state interference, or of having the state stand in loco 
parentis, carries them still further. In several states where 
free text-books are not supplied, special laws exist, compelling 
the local board to purchase school-books for needy children. 
But text-books alone will not take a child to school; he must 
have clothing and meals; and recently two states — Ohio and 
Colorado — have undertaken to supply these in the case of 
needy children. ^ But poverty of parents may press the mat- 
ter farther back. In not a few cases it happens that a vigorous 
child of thirteen is the sole support of sick or otherwise depend- 
ent parents, and that the child is quite willing to work. Under 
these conditions the enforcement of the law becomes difficult, 
and in many cities the organized charities have organized 
special relief for just this class of cases. This, too, might 

1 Shaw, Ed. Rev. 4 : 133. 



Compulsory Education 499 

well become a matter for state action, since the alternative 
presented to the state is to supply the needful food and sup- 
port or allow the child to grow up in relative ignorance. 
Such action must be exercised with extreme caution, other- 
wise it could become a dangerous menace to independ- 
ence. 

The following problems may be said to be the yet unsolved 
in regard to compulsory education : — 

a. Vocational Education. — The curriculum of the elemen- 
tary school is in many cases not yet sufficiently adapted to 
the class of childen who either desire or are obhged to go 
early into industry. The consequence is that parents and 
children feel that the last couple of years of school life are 
not profitably spent, and educators themselves must realize 
that this is largely true, and that the chief advantage which 
comes to the children from being held from labor until they 
reach their fourteenth year is physical. It is believed that 
under better school conditions, and with curricula providing 
a certain quantity of work which should be frankly recog- 
nized as vocational, parents would not be so eager to have 
their children withdraw from school, and the children them- 
selves would attend with more pleasure. The elementary 
school is at present always uniform for all children, which 
prevents a measure of adaptation to the special needs of 
those who are to go early into employment. In the upper 
grades courses of study should provide as alternatives for 
these pupils some studies at least which are eminently practi- 
cal in their nature. Into these courses the large children, 
frequently retarded in their grades, should be allowed to go, 
and the work given as much of a turn as possible to meet 
their needs. This work need not be exclusively vocational 
at any time, but should combine vocational and cultural 
elements, to the end that the utmost possible educational 
profit, on the level needful to them, should accrue to pupils 
who will early leave the school for industry. The more 
abstruse studies of grammar and arithmetic should be put on 
a purely practical basis, and much more should be made of 
the study of current events, of local history and civics, and 



500 Educational Administration 

of practical written and spoken English, to the end that for 
these pupils the maximum profit may be derived.^ 

b. Qualification for Entering Employment. — The qualifica- 
tions for leaving school must approximate the qualifications for 
entering on employment. The difficulties in the way of fix- 
ing these are several. Commonly, age alone has been taken 
into account, supplemented later, as we have seen, by educa- 
tional qualifications, like the completion of the work of a 
certain grade, ability to read and write, etc., finally reaching 
the standard of having completed the eighth grade. From 
the standpoint of those who consider the child's fitness for 
labor, however, there has recently arisen the question as to 
whether weak and insufficiently developed children, even if 
meeting the age and educational requirements, should be 
allowed to go to work. This new standard will undoubtedly 
tend to influence the issuance of permits to labor in the 
future, and suggests the very great need of some sort of 
standardization of the conditions under which children should 
be allowed to leave school and enter on different kinds of 
employment. Many students of this subject believe that a 
distinct educational test should also be imposed, no matter 
what age requirement may be met, to the end that these will 
become an incentive to attain a degree of education. The 

1 " The Wisconsin Committee [on Child Labor] is convinced that child labor 
laws standing by themselves, even if thorough and modern in form, are too often 
a mockery of legislation unless they are accompanied by satisfactory and 
thoroughly enforced education and truancy lavi^s and by ungraded rooms and 
schools, playgrounds, and park facilities, and in general, unless when employment 
is denied to children, school and vacation facilities are given and school at- 
tendance compelled. Our committee, therefore, seeks not only a child labor law 
which shall be practical and modern in the best sense, but also to keep fully 
abreast (and if possible in advance of that standard) the educational system of 
the state, including compulsory education laws and satisfactory truancy laws. 
And we believe that the juvenile court should be extended throughout the state. 
Undesirable as certain forms of child labor are, and much as we may look forward 
to the time when no child under sixteen shall be employed at gainful occupa- 
tions, the fact remains that under existing conditions a great number of our 
children must work for wages, and that it is far worse to have children in idle- 
ness on the streets, studying the school of crime, because of lack of proper 
educational laws and of vacation schools and playgrounds and other proper and 
normal ways to use the abounding strength of childhood." — National Child 
Labor, Com. Rep., 1907 : p. 158. 



Child Labor Legislation 501 

setting of an educational qualification should, however, be 
expressed in terms of the student's real ability to do the work. 
c. Enforcement. — In the last analysis, the enforcement of 
the compulsory education should rest with the educational 
authorities, working through the juvenile court and probation 
system in case of necessity. The school system should have 
its own health authorities, and these should examine every 
child to whom an employment certificate is issued. The at- 
tendance department, through a system of registration, should 
keep track of all children under sixteen years of age, cooper- 
ating with factory inspectors. Under these circumstances, 
it would be possible to locate in the school system responsi- 
bility for the enforcement of the law fixing minimum condi- 
tions for labor. The attendance officer, knowing the location 
and working conditions of all employed children, could easily 
cooperate with factory inspectors as to night labor and 
dangerous occupations. Without some such system as this 
of coordinating the forces of the community concerned with 
child labor, the progress of legislation of an effective sort 
regarding both compulsory education and premature child 
labor will be slow of enforcement and confused in operation. 



2. CHILD LABOR LEGISLATION 

In European countries and American states the right of 
the child to an education has been made one of the strong 
grounds for regulating by law the labor of children below 
certain ages. The nineteenth century, which saw the rise of 
universal education, has also witnessed a hardly less extensive 
movement to relieve children from the consequences of pre- 
mature labor and industrial exploitation.^ 

1 The child labor movement really had its beginning in England as early as 
1802. Prior to that time the factory system had developed, and the law per- 
mitted pauper children to be apprenticed. With the development of machinery 
which children could manage, the demand for these became very great, and 
agents scoured the country, practically purchasing small children by thousands 
from the institutions for slavish work in the mills. The hours were unregulated, 
the machinery was kept going night and day, and gang succeeded gang in the 
shops. The death rate was high, and the children melted away. Investigations 



502 Educational Administration 

National and State Legislation. — Legislation affecting the 
labor of minors has been usually national in its scope in 
European countries ; hence it presents a certain consistency 
and effectiveness in operation which is not found in the 
United States, where each state deals with the matter in- 
dependently, and where no means of national interference 
have yet been evolved.^ In England, for example, after a 
long compaign, bitterly fought by industrial interests, Parlia- 
ment has, in successive stages, provided legislation which has 
proven fairly effective. A few American states like Mas- 
sachusetts, Connecticut, and Illinois have, after long contests, 
finally produced satisfactory legislation and means of enforce- 
ment ; but other states lag far behind, sometimes because of 
the absence of lines of industry permitting the exploitation of 
children, sometimes because of an apathetic public opinion, 
and sometimes because of the resisting powers of vested in- 
terests. Within recent years national philanthropic organi- 
zations have taken an active interest in promoting legislation 
and the enforcement of laws. These, and various local 
bodies, have created a large amount of public interest, and 
the last few years have witnessed a great advance in legis- 
lation. Progress has been handicapped, however, by lack 
of scientific knowledge. However powerful the sentimental 
interest opposed to specific forms of child labor, it has not 
always been true that the opposition has been grounded on 
facts, either of a physical or social nature. Recently it 

of these conditions led to the Bill of 1802, which was the first large legislative 
step taken, and which limited the hours of children at work to twelve. Abuses 
continued, however, and in 1848 the great Ten Hour Bill was passed, which 
limited the time of work for children under thirteen to five hours, and for all 
women and young persons — boys under eighteen — to ten each day. 

iThe Beveridge Bill. — In 1907 an attempt was made to pass through 
Congress a bill prohibiting interstate commerce in goods that were manu- 
factured by child labor. The measure created wide interest, since it suggested 
a means of procuring national legislation on this subject, and of thus coercing 
unwilling states. But it was generally believed to be an unwarranted extension 
of congressional control of commerce, and it failed of passage. As matters now 
stand, it is doubtful if the national government has any direct control, except 
over the District of Columbia, which has received a good law. Indirectly, 
through conferences of the executives of other states, uniformity may eventually 
result. 



Child Labor Legislation 503 

has been proposed that the national government establish a 
Bureau of Children to investigate all the conditions which 
affect the well-being of childhood, in so far as such knowl- 
edge and experimentation are not now available from exist- 
ing agencies. Another proposal has been that this should be 
an added function of the Bureau of Education. In any case, 
the conviction has arisen that the nation, with its vary- 
ing legislation and its numerous problems of childhood arising 
from heterogeneous population, should develop agencies 
which, in this division of social economy, should do what the 
Department of Agriculture does in its field. No state and no 
private agency now possesses the means or can command the 
men and resources to undertake the work ; but the nation 
could support and forward it and powerfully modify state 
legislation along socially constructive lines. 

Child Labor Laws. — The following represent the essential 
features of the child labor laws of a few states which have 
given effective attention to the matter. We have previously 
noted the educational counterparts of this legislation : — 

New Jersey does not allow labor under fourteen ; but it does not impose 
educational tests upon foreigners reaching that age. Both boys and girls 
over fourteen may be employed at night, to the limit of fifty-five hours 
per week. It is felt that the glass industry should be characterized as a 
dangerous trade, but this idea has no legal effect yet. An excellent older 
law in New Jersey prohibited the employment of women and minors under 
eighteen by night, except in a few industries ; but this law has been repealed. 

In Pennsylvania the principle of dangerous trades is recognized, in that 
boys under sixteen may not work underground. Up to 1905 this state 
permitted children meeting an educational test to labor, even in all-night 
work, if they had reached the age of thirteen. The educational test was 
avowedly farcical, the merest scrawl sufficing for writing. Even by the 
latest legislation night work is not sufficiently regulated. 

New York. — In many respects New York has the best laws, but even 
these permit late night work in stores, allow boys of ten who have attended 
school to sell papers on the streets, and permit children of fourteen to work 
till ten o'clock at night. The good features are : till fourteen all children 
must be at school ; from fourteen to sixteen all must be at work or at 
school ; age must be proved otherwise than by parents' word ; before he 
can get a work certificate a child must show by certificate from the school 
principal that he has in the preceding year attended school 130 days ; the 
physician of the Board of Health who signs the certificate must state that 



504 Educational Administration 

the child is of "normal stature for a child of his age, and in good health." 
The educational standard for the child who gets a working certificate is 
vague, but fairly advanced : reading, writing, English grammar, geography, 
and arithmetic "up to, and including fractions." A defect of the New 
York law is that it does not reach tenement home labor. 

Ohio. — In 1908 Ohio passed a law which is regarded by many social 
workers as superior to anything to be found. It prohibits the employment 
of children under fourteen, limits to an eight-hour day, girls under eighteen 
and boys under sixteen, and to forty-eight hours per week, and no work 
between the hours of six in evening and seven in morning. It includes 
cigar manufacture as a dangerous trade for youth under sixteen, and re- 
quires eight women factory " visitors," so called, because another law required 
that factory inspectors shall be chosen from among the electors of the state. 

The Labor of Children in Great Britain is governed by two general acts 
recently passed by Parliament. They fix general rules, but local authorities 
may supplement these. In general, the following conditions prevail : 
children under twelve may not be employed in factories and workshops, 
and under eleven in street trades ; children from twelve to fourteen may 
be employed in shops and factories only half time, and must attend a rec- 
ognized school when not employed ; if the child fails to attend school, 
employment must also cease ; in all textile factories children under sixteen 
may work only between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. or 7 a.m. and 7 p.m. Out of 
the time given above, at least two hours must be given for meals ; no per- 
son under eighteen may be employed in shops longer then seventy-four 
hours per week including meal times ; any person under sixteen seeking 
work must present a certificate from the " certifying surgeon " procured at 
the employer's expense, who must approve age and other fitness for the 
work ; and the factory inspector may prevent the employment of any young 
person under sixteen if he thinks such person unfit. In general, also, the 
laws impose considerable restrictions in the case of dangerous trades. In 
igoi, a total of 36,500 children under fourteen were employed in textile 
factories as half-timers. 

In Germany child labor is regulated partly by state laws and partly by 
federal ordinances. The laws are complicated, and give considerable atten- 
tion to " related children " ; that is, those working with relatives. Children 
under thirteen or those over thirteen who have not completed the common 
school course are prohibited from laboring in factories, mines, building 
operations, and a variety of specified workshops. Related children under thir- 
teen may be employed in a variety of local industries, but the local police 
may restrict such labor at any time. All children under thirteen must 
attend school ; hence their hours of labor are restricted so as to permit 
school attendance. Such work must be by day, must not begin until one 
hour after the afternoon school session, and for non-related children may 
not exceed three hours per day, except during vacation, when it may be 
four. Children under fourteen may not be employed in factories more 
than six hours per day; and from fourteen to sixteen not more than ten 



Child Labor Legislatioji 505 

hours. Employers must allow all young people under eighteen to attend 
schools for adults, which attendance may be made compulsory by local 
authorities. So far as statistics are available, they show that the part-time 
employment of children under fourteen is very extensive, being, in 1900, 
532,000, or 6.5 per cent of the children of school age ; to which must be 
added about 3500 employed in factories. 

In France the laws governing child labor are simple and uniform, except 
that workshops in which only members of the family are employed under 
the direction of father or guardian are exempt, as are also agricultural and 
purely mercantile establishments. The main points of the laws are : be- 
fore employment in factories, workshops, quarries, mines, etc., children must 
have completed their thirteenth year and the common school course of educa- 
tion. Males under eighteen and all females may not be employed more 
than ten hours per day, and in mines all boys from thirteen to eighteen 
years of age may work only eight hours. Females may not work under- 
ground. Work between 9 p.m. and 5 a.m. is forbidden to all males under 
eighteen and to all females. Children under sixteen may be required by 
executive authority to undergo special physical examination before being 
employed in certain occupations ; and children under eighteen must pos- 
sess employment certificates showing their age, schooling qualifications, 
and physical fitness for the work they have to perform. The executive 
officials are authorized to make certain exemptions. 

In Switzerland, for over twenty-five years, the state authorities have 
made each child who is the sole support of a widowed mother, the holder 
of a scholarship equivalent to the amount the child should earn, and this 
is paid on presentation of evidence of regular attendance at school. 

The gradual development of legislation protecting children 
in industry in America and foreign countries shovi^s the ap- 
proximation of certain standards which may be described as 
follows : — 

a. Legal Restrictions- — There must be a minimum age 
below which ,it becomes illegal for children to work. This 
minimum age is affected by the kind of employment, the 
participation of parents in the employment, and the sex of 
the worker. The best practice makes thirteen or fourteen 
the minimum age for factory work, sixteen for mines, and 
twelve for so-called street trades. Females may not work 
underground, and for some types of trade and factory work 
the minimum age for them is higher than for boys. Danger- 
ous or hazardous trades are recognized, and children below 
a certain age prohibited from working in them. 

b. Educational Standard. — The educational rights of chil- 



5o6 Educational Administration 

dren must take precedence, up to a certain age, of the right 
to labor. In Germany and France children even of the 
minimum age must have completed the common school 
course of study. In American states the standard is fre- 
quently low and indefinite, involving ability to read and write. 
In some American states it is attempted to meet this difiEiculty 
by requiring a considerable attendance the year previous to 
the apphcation for work. The English law seeks to combine 
schooling with labor, by a carefully guarded system of half- 
time employment. The Germans make compulsory some 
form of education, usually up to the seventeenth or eigh- 
teenth year, and oblige employers to allow time for this. 
Hitherto much of this teaching has been given on Sunday, 
or in evenings ; but there are religious objections to the first 
method, and hygienic objections to the second, and there 
seems to be a tendency to insist that this continuation school 
attendance of six or more hours per week will have to be 
provided for out of the working time of the pupil. For the 
American states it is highly desirable that a positive edu- 
cational test be imposed which shall make the issuance of a 
labor certificate conditional upon having attained a certain 
educational standard. This would react greatly on the morale 
of the school, since now many retarded children simply sit 
passive, waiting for the time when they shall have completed 
the requisite days of attendance and attained the required 
age in order to go to work. On the other hand, the adoption 
of such a standard as this should be accompanied by the 
development within the schools of greater flexibility of 
courses, adapted to foreign and to retarded children. To 
require all to complete the entire work found in the present 
elementary course of study, with its formal and often un- 
serviceable character, would be too great a hardship. 

c. Physical Condition for Labor. — Not merely age and 
educational qualifications are sufficient to assure the child 
permission to take up work. In France we have seen that 
a medical authority must pass on the child's fitness for labor; 
in some states in the United States the Health Department 
is required to pass on such fitness. Since an important part 



Child Labor Legislation 507 

of the aims of child labor legislation is to conserve the 
physical well-being of children, it is manifestly important that 
physical development and health be taken into consideration. 
At present, laws to this effect are considerably inoperative, 
owing to lack of satisfactory standards ; but in time standards 
of physical fitness will be developed, so that the matter of 
conserving the health of youthful workers will be possible. 
In fact, it may become necessary to physically examine 
children who have begun work to discover whether the 
occupations they are following are tending to develop in- 
jurious consequences.^ 

Industrial and civic efficiency demand that to some extent 
in proportion as the later life of the child is to be mechanical 
and his labor highly specialized, he should early be allowed 
opportunities to attain to full development on the natural 
level. For such a child, even more than the usual amount 
of time for play expression is necessary, that the aesthetic 
impulses may have some exercise, and the physical powers 
be developed. 

d. Conditions of Labor. — Finally, all progressive child labor 
legislation is more and more taking account of the length of 
day and the time of day during which it is desirable to permit 
children to work. One of the anomalies in economic progress 
is found in the fact that long after men, in the so-called or- 
ganized trades, have won the shorter day of labor, women and 
children have still been found, owing to their inability to act 
cooperatively, working long days and at unseasonable hours 
of night. In greater or less degree the best child labor 
legislation now prohibits night work, especially for girls, and 
limits the length of day or week which children may be kept 
at work. German legislation, especially, is also careful in 
prescribing eating and recreation periods. The importance 
of limiting to eight hours the working day of a growing boy 

1 " Let us realize before it is too late that in this age of iron, of machine 
tending, and of subdivided labor, that we need, as never before, the untrammelled 
and inspired activity of youth. To cut it out from our national life, as w^e con- 
stantly do, in regard to thousands of working children, is a most perilous under- 
taking, and endangers the very industry to which they have been sacrificed." — 
Jane Addams. 



5o8 Educational Administration 

or girl is found partly in purely physiological reasons connected 
with the growth of the child, which takes place through leisure 
for play and rest. 

The Weak Points in American child labor legislation are 
found under the following conditions : — 

a. The textile mills of the Southern states are employing a 
very considerable number of children who have neither the 
education nor the physical development for that work. Ex- 
cept in Tennessee and Kentucky, the so-called twelve-hour 
standard holds in the South. In South Carolina, in Georgia, 
and in Alabama it is yet possible for a ten-year-old child by 
permission of the law to work twelve hours a day. In North 
Carolina twelve-year-old children may work twelve night 
hours. In these states, poor as the laws are, there is no 
machinery for their enforcement, and the agent of the 
National Child Labor Committee says their violation is 
a matter of common notoriety. Except in Kentucky and 
Maryland there are no compulsory education laws in the 
South, and "that has been made the plea for sentencing 
thousands of little children to hard labor for no other crime 
than the supposed poverty of their parents." Agent McKel- 
way believes "that there are over 60,000 children under 14 
at work in Southern cotton mills." ^ 

b. Certain special types of industry in New Jersey, West 
Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Indiana offer great tempta- 
tions to the early employment of boys. The coal mines, 
glass factories, and tobacco factories have specialized forms of 
labor which children can perform effectively, but which are 
all deleterious physically, and often harmful morally. The 
coal work costs the lives and limbs of many children. The 
glass factory work involves night work with attendant fatigue 
and bad moral consequences. 

c. Even in states like New York, where legislation and the 
machinery for enforcement are above the average, no suc- 
cessful means have yet been devised for correcting the evil in 
tenements and at homes. 

Registration. — Many of the difficulties which arise with 

1 igo6. 



Child Labor Legislation 509 

reference to the enforcement of child labor legislation 
and compulsory attendance at school could be obviated in 
cities at least by the maintenance of an effective system of 
registration or a "live census" which would be kept con- 
tinuous. This will be discussed more fully in a subsequent 
chapter (p. 538), but here it may be noted that when cases of 
violation of the law are suspected, or when children fail to ap- 
pear at school, the lack of a system of registration makes it 
difficult and expensive to trace them. But a continuous cen- 
sus kept up by the attendance department of the schools, 
keeping record year after year of the child's age, health con- 
ditions, scholastic attainments, and the like would provide 
almost instantly the data on which an employment certificate 
might be issued when the proper time for that had arrived. 
The attendance departments of the schools should take ac- 
count, also, of all new arrivals into a city or district, where 
children under sixteen were involved, and thus supply the in- 
formation to the authorities concerned with the issuance of the 
labor certificate at any time. 

REFERENCES 

Giddings, F. H. Social and Legal Aspects of Compulsory Education 
and Child Labor, Proc. N. E. A. 1905 : iii. — Martin, G. H. On Com- 
pulsory Education in Massachusetts, Ed. Rev. 3:313. — Perrin, J. W. 
Beginnings in Compulsory Education, Ed. Rev. 25 :24o. — Perrin, J. W. 
Indirect Compulsory Education, Ed. Rev. 31 : 383. — Shaw, W. B. Com- 
pulsory Education in the United States, Ed. Rev. 3 : 444 ; 4 : 47, 129. — 
Rep. of Com. of Ed. 1889: 470 (Compulsory Attendance Laws). — Rep. 
of Com. of Ed. 1903:23, and 2405 (same subject) ; Report of Chicago 
Education Commission, p. 160. — Adams, M. E. Children in American 
Street Trades, Annals of Am. Acad. 25. — Addams, Jane. Child Labor, 
Proc. N. E. A. 1905 : 259. — Clarke, A. The Effects of the Factory System. 
London, 1899. — Devine, E. T. Home Statistics of Child Labor, Ann. 
Am. Acad. 21:505. — Drage, G. The Labor Problem. London, 1896. 
— Goldmark, J. C. The Necessary Sequel of Child Labor Laws, Am. 
Jour, of Soc. II : 312. — Horton, Isabel. The Burden of the City. New 
York, 1904. — Kelley, Florence. Some Ethical Gains through Legislation. 
New York, 1905. — Murphy, E. G. Problems of the Present South. 
New York, 1904. — Sewall, Hannah R. Child Labor in the United 
States. In U. S. Bur. of Labor, Bui. no. 52, vol. 9. Washington, 1904. 
(The most complete study available.) — Spargo, J . The Bitter Cry of the 



5IO Educational Administration 

Children. New York, 1906. — Willoughby, W. F. Child Labor, Proc. Am. 
Econ. Assn. 1890 : no. 2. — Whittelsey, Sarah S. Massachusetts La- 
bor Legislation ; an Historical and Critical Study. Philadelphia 
(Am. Acad, of Pol. and Soc. Sci.), 1900. — Wright, C. D. Practical 
Sociology. New York, 1900; U. S. Bur. of Labor, Bulletin no. 62. 
Washington, 1906. (Laws relating to the employment of children in the 
United States.) — Wright, C. D. Report on the Wages of Men, Women, 
and Children. Washington, 1897. The Library of Congress (Washington) 
also issues a complete bibliography of this subject, including domestic 
and foreign studies. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

School Discipline and Government 

The last half-century has seen a significant change in the 
discipline of children, both in the home and in the school. 
One would hesitate to say that this change is entirely for 
the better, but that the relationships between parents and 
teachers and the children under their charge have been greatly 
modified, no one can deny. It is easy to say that this is one 
element in educational progress, — no doubt it is true. The 
ethical aims of the modern school require a different atmos- 
phere and a higher degree of cooperation than were to be 
seen in the older schools. But this is not a sufficient explana- 
tion of the radical difference between the school government 
of to-day and that of fifty years ago. 

The Growth of the Democratic Spirit. — It may be that there 
has been an overstimulation of the democratic spirit in our 
country, partly the result of a reaction from the more mili- 
tary and rigid civic relations found in European countries 
whence so many of our people have emigrated. The stars 
and stripes are a synonym for freedom, and American youth 
grasping this idea are inclined to get away from parental 
authority at an early age. No longer are children restrained 
and governed in the homes with that care and sense of re- 
ponsibility which was true in the homes of our fathers. This 
being the case, parents object to severity and force in the 
school. In many cities and towns, corporal punishment is 
forbidden, and teachers are required to use only moral means 
in their control. 

Influence of Individualism. — And yet there are other causes 
of this change. Those principles of human responsibility and 
conduct which are expressed in theology and in the social 

5" 



512 Educational Administration 

code have been greatly modified. The human element has 
been brought into prominence. The responsibility which one 
owes to God and to man has been somewhat overshadowed by 
the idea of responsibility to one's self. This kind of individu- 
alism is not likely to be a small factor in a country where 
every man works for himself and his own. However much 
the social spirit may be fostered, the individual is writ large 
and must always be reckoned with. 

More Humane Methods. — The world has grown more 
humane. Laws protecting children are rapidly finding their 
way into our statute books. Societies for the prevention of 
cruelty to animals would seem quite out of place in a commu- 
nity where children are not amply guarded and protected. 
In short, milder methods of discipline are merely a part 
of a general movement toward altruism. It is becoming 
atmospheric and habitual. The tradition of hostility between 
teacher and child is a thing of the past. Fewer truant offi- 
cers are needed, because, as a rule, children love school and 
naturally and easily conform to its requirements. 

Effect upon Public Order. — The charge that there is a grow- 
ing spirit of lawlessness in the country, due to lax methods of 
discipline, is probably not well grounded. On the other hand, 
considering that the United States are receiving more than 
a million foreigners yearly whose children enter our schools, 
causing in many instances great congestion and making 
serious demands upon the municipal exchequer, it is remark- 
able that the moral tone of the community is so high. 

The Aim of School Discipline. — The question now arises. 
What is the true aim of modern school discipline and what 
does it undertake to accomplish .'' The answer is found in 
the necessity that young people passing from our schools to 
the freer life of the college, the business house, and the street, 
should be well trained in the practice of self-control and self- 
direction. They not only should be able to withstand temp- 
tation and prove faithful to every trust, but should take pride 
in doing so, and should be strong in their principles of rectitude 
and in habitual well-doing. 

The Value of Experience, — This would seem to require a 



School Discipline and Government 513 

large opportunity for the " practice of choice," during the 
whole school life. Children must have experience in doing 
right day by day and week by week. They must learn to 
cooperate, to be loyal to every good interest in the home and 
the school. They should enjoy the satisfaction which comes 
from the approval of both their elders and their equals, — in 
fact, they should be respected citizens in the school commu- 
nity. The modern school controls and guides its pupils, but 
does not undertake force. It places self-respect above fear, 
and the consciousness of doing right above the sense of con- 
formity to rules through compulsion. 

Comparison with European Schools. — In this respect our 
schools differ from those in most European countries. In the 
states of Germany, where we look for some of our best edu- 
cational models, we find a rigidness and even severity in the 
management of pupils, which is consistent with the traditions 
and methods of the civic order. This is not saying that 
German teachers are usually harsh or unsympathetic or that 
the pupils are unhappy in the school. The difference is due 
more to temperament, habit, and environment than to any lack 
of sympathy or appreciation. It is said that a change is 
working in English schools whereby more humane and kind- 
lier methods are taking the place of those which are formal 
and antiquated. 

The New Humanitarianism. — In an age when nations insist 
upon supporting great armies and navies, not for the sake of 
making war, but with the avowed purpose of preserving peace, 
when all people are being drawn together in relations of 
friendliness and mutual regard, we may expect to see not 
only universal arbitration of difficulties and the reign of justice 
between nations, but also less arbitrary measures of control, 
in the home, the school, and the community. 

Pupil Government. — One method of utilizing the oppor- 
tunities for training in self-government and civic responsibil- 
ity has been to throw upon the students in school or college 
the responsibility of maintaining good order and the proper 
respect for authority and law. In many instances this plan 
has worked successfully. With the advice and oversight of 



514 Educational Administration 

wise teachers, the pupils have made rules and have taken 
steps to have them obeyed. With the common consent of 
the student body and good judgment on the part of those 
selected to act as council or managing committee, questions 
of discipline are promptly disposed of and public opinion is 
invoked to support those who have been appointed or elected 
to perform executive functions. Where this method has been 
attempted as a remedy for the effect of poor discipline or un- 
wise management, it has usually failed. If the restraints of 
rigid control are too suddenly removed, and a school is thrown 
back upon itself, the strain is apt to be too great, and disaster 
ensues. As in the reformatory, every effort is now made to 
gradually develop the self-respect and ambition of the inmates, 
so that by an increasing degree of freedom of action and the 
exercise of choice they may be prepared to go forth and re- 
sume their place in the world ; so in the school, the transition 
from rigid control by the teacher to pupil government must 
be so gradual and so wisely directed as to prevent any ten- 
dency to license or anarchy. 

Growth in Self-government. — The general proposition that 
both in our schools and colleges self-government should have 
a large place and be regarded both as a means and an end, 
has received general acceptation. Even where no radical 
change has been made in the plans or scheme of manage- 
ment, the students have been given a larger opportunity to 
participate in all affairs affecting the order and government 
of the institution. It is not usual now for heads of schools 
and colleges to say, " We have no discipline ; the pupils 
govern themselves." If there have been some failures grow- 
ing out of the attempt to throw a large part of the responsi- 
bility upon the students, it is usually traceable either to the 
lack of character and good judgment personified in the head 
of the institution or to loose and unwise methods of admin- 
istering discipline. The theory of self-government is sound 
wherever it can be wisely applied. It favors growth in civic 
and social strength, promotes ambition, enthusiasm, and 
loyalty ; it makes an institution self-respecting and strong ; 
it promotes more agreeable relations between instructors and 



School Discipline and Government 515 

students, and calls into play those ethical qualities which 
belong to true education. 

The School City. — The principle of self-government in 
public schools has found expression in the " school city," 
which has perhaps attracted more attention than any other 
method of discipline. It is a little difficult to treat this 
matter and be sure that one is doing full justice to what it 
has or has not accomplished. Mr. Wilson L. Gill, its author, 
and many others who have utilized this plan, are ardent be- 
lievers in it, and claim that unusual results have been accom- 
plished. On the other hand, it is said that the majority of 
those who have tried the experiment have given it up. It is 
even stated that of thirty or more school cities organized in 
the public schools of Philadelphia, all but one or two have 
been discontinued. At the same time, there are several 
schools where the system is said to be working success- 
fully, and those whose judgment cannot be questioned say 
that it not only has given distinction and value to their ethical 
work, but, in many individual cases, has reached pupils who, 
under ordinary conditions, would have belonged to the truant 
or vagrant class. 

The author of this system is said to have achieved consider- 
able success in applying it in the public schools of Cuba. 
It has been strongly indorsed by prominent educators and 
philanthropists. Perhaps the idea originally came from the 
George Junior Republic, which is so well known and so favor- 
ably regarded. A modest beginning made in connection with 
the vacation schools in New York in 1897 attracted the atten- 
tion of Mr. Roosevelt, then president of the police board and 
other municipal officers. From that time, sporadic applica- 
tions of the same method have been made east, west, and 
south, and, as before stated, there have been both successes 
and failures in its operation. 

The Aims of the School City. — There seem to be two 
objects which are sought by the advocates of this device : first, 
experience in self-government ; and second, an acquaintance 
with civic forms and practice. Some lay more emphasis 
upon the one and some upon the other. Those who have 



5i6 Educational Administration 

endeavored to explain the frequent failures of the plan say 
that it was introduced where self-government did not exist, 
where pupils had not been trained to self-control and self- 
direction, and that the organization of the school into a min- 
iature city, with mayor, board of aldermen, police courts, 
board of health, etc., does not in itself insure growth in that 
inner spirit and vital purpose which are the necessary pre- 
requisites to self-government. The mechanical form of the 
plan is striking and interesting. It affords pupils some ac- 
quaintance, although in a very artificial way, with the methods 
and practices of civil government. Even here there must 
needs be the greatest care and the most judicious oversight 
in order that such serious mistakes are not made as to preju- 
dice the whole scheme and bring it into disrepute. Of the 
several books written on the subject, the last one, while in- 
tended as a defence of the general theory of the system, is, 
in a sense, an explanation of its measurable insufficiency, for 
it shows that in the successful work which the author has 
accomplished in several schools, he had been careful to make 
sure that the pupils had imbibed the spirit of self-government 
before entering upon the new plan.^ 

Conditions of Success. — It is safe to say that the school 
city in its mechanical workings has not the ethical basis for 
securing true self-government, and when introduced for that 
purpose is likely to fail. It is like putting new wine into old 
bottles, — the strain is too great. Those schoolmasters who 
belong to the ancient regime, and cling to the rod as the ul- 
timate means of enforcing authority, are not likely to make a 
happy transition to a system of pupil government. They 
must first establish the right relations between the pupils 
and themselves ; they must give the students large opportu- 
nity to practise those virtues which belong to self-governing 
and self-respecting citizens. They can then introduce the 
school city or any other mechanical agency with some hope 
of success. 

Practical Suggestion. — While it is quite unlikely that the 
school city will become universal or even widely extended, it 

1 Cronson, Pupil Government. 



School Discipline and Government 517 

will have served a noble purpose if it helps to bring into bold 
relief the two purposes which it is intended to promote; 
namely, self-government and good citizenship. These are 
two cardinal factors in the life of a republic. The content 
of the two terms is immense. They are inclusive of much 
that modern education seeks to accomplish. The lack of 
success which the school city has encountered has revealed 
to many principals and teachers their own weakness and 
inefficiency. The theory is excellent and should not be 
discarded or thrust aside. The concrete examples of its 
successful installation in many schools are reminders to all 
easy-going and unprogressive schoolmasters that there are 
new and better paths than those which they have followed. 
Such experiments are valuable in bringing into the schools 
those elements of naturalness and practical cooperation which 
are so desirable both in the home and the community. They 
indicate the trend in modern education and life ; they are a 
protest against cliques and class distinctions ; they point to a 
time when our civic affairs will be managed more directly by 
the people and less by the bosses ; when, as a democracy, 
we are free from the rule of the oligarchy. School men are 
naturally conservative and jealous of those who advocate new 
ideas, whether they are in the ranks or are outside. This is 
unfortunate, for we need many experiments and much pains- 
taking effort in freeing the schools and colleges from artifici- 
ality and in bringing them both in form and spirit into rela- 
tion with the life of the community. 

Rewards, Prizes, and Punishments. — One of the authors of 
this chapter, in another volume, has discussed this topic at 
considerable length.^ It is only necessary here to note how 
this changed attitude toward the sources and aims of moral 
upbuilding has affected the use of those extraordinary incen- 
tives which formerly played so important a part in school 
management. In the older countries where examinations 
are given such prominence in school and college, we find a 
multiplicity of prizes and honors to reward students for their 
achievements. There is something to be said for their use 

^ Dutton, School Management, 



5i8 Educational Administration 

under certain conditions, but as examinations play a poor part 
in the real educative process, so prizes, whether given for 
good conduct or studiousness, have doubtless done more harm 
than good. Even if they have served a purpose in the past, 
they seem to be more or less out of harmony with modern 
ideals. It is often a student who is at the foot of his class 
who really deserves the prize, and the pupil who lapses in his 
conduct may have within himself obstacles to overcome which 
give his efforts a peculiar value and worth. 

Special Care Needed. — Educational administration in the 
future is to busy itself more in seeking out the weak, the defec- 
tive and the unfortunate and in trying to give them the needed 
nourishment and guidance, while the normal and well-favored 
pupils take care of themselves. To overstimulate precocity 
either in the field of learning or morals is almost a crime. 
One sees by the wayside many wrecks of humanity, the 
results of parental unwisdom and the forcing process of 
the schools. A sane and healthy school management will do 
something to curb inordinate selfishness and greed in its in- 
cipient forms, and will seek to make citizens who, to some 
extent, find pleasure in serving others and using their powers 
for the common good. 

Treatment of the Insubordinate. — The recent discussion in 
New York City over the movement for the restoration of cor- 
poral punishment in the schools has brought to the surface 
certain facts which cannot be ignored by school boards. It 
was asserted over and over again by principals that an in- 
dividual pupil was often so vicious, so insolent, and so insub- 
ordinate as to menace the authority of the teacher and to 
disturb the peace and welfare of the schoolroom. Without 
doubt, the same thing is true in other towns and cities. In 
some cases the principal will have such supreme power of 
control as to be able to reach even these worst offenders. 
But it does not reflect seriously upon principals and teachers 
to be obliged to confess that they find some cases beyond 
their power to diagnose or to treat successfully. What is 
the solution of this problem } Manifestly it is to separate 
these difficult cases, put them under a special teacher who, 



School Discipline and Government 519 

having few pupils and being strong physically and morally, 
can treat each one wisely and effectively. 

Value of Segregation. — In some cities, notably Baltimore, 
one room is chosen in each large school building for this 
purpose. Pupils thus segregated for purposes of discipline 
are withdrawn only for such a period as may be necessary to 
arouse in them the proper determination and attitude. This 
certainly is a sensible arrangement. It saves the teacher 
that annoyance and nervous strain which an insubordinate 
pupil may cause, and permits him to devote himself freely to 
the legitimate work of his class. Moreover, it brings the 
insubordinate and bad-tempered pupils under the influence of 
a regime which is reformatory and uplifting, and often results 
in their salvation. 

The Parental School. — Confirmed truants and those who 
are evidently beyond the help of ordinary means of redemp- 
tion must be put in a special truant or parental school for a 
period of time long enough to work a change that is funda- 
mental and organic. As before suggested, modern pedagogy 
cannot blind itself to the pathological and therapeutic factors 
which are present in questions of discipline and control. 
Large wisdom and a larger sympathy are necessary. Machine 
methods are not adequate. The physician and the psy- 
chologist must work together, just as in the modern practice 
of psycho-therapeutics the clergyman and the physician are 
joining hands and are saving adults who are utterly dis- 
couraged and perhaps on the brink of self-destruction. 

Discipline a Problem of Administration. — -This subject has 
been discussed in its general bearings in the full conscious- 
ness that what is said may not fall under the eye of the 
average teacher. It is distinctly a problem for the super- 
intendent. He himself cannot regulate the details of school 
government and meet the varying conditions which arise in 
city schools, but he can so present the matter to his principals, 
and make such an appeal to their intelligence and judgment, 
as to win their consent to the ideal which he wishes to en- 
courage. Where school affairs have been in a static con- 
dition, and where many of the teachers gained their experience 



520 Educational Administration 

under an old regime, it is necessary to attack this problem 
of discipline with great energy and earnestness in order to 
reach the desired end. It is well for the principals to have 
frequent reports from their teachers concerning evidences of 
growth in moral feeling and mutual helpfulness on the part 
of pupils, and the principals, in turn, should report to the 
superintendent in a similar way. If once the true notion of 
self-government is active in every schoolroom, all other 
problems will become easy. 

REFERENCES 

Harris, W. T. Relation of Discipline to Moral Training, Third Herb. 
Year Book, 58-73. — Munroe, J. P. Sparing the Rod, Ed. Rev. 22 : 514. — 
Hall, G. S. Moral Education and Will Training, Ped. Sem. 2:72. — 
Welling, R. W. The Teaching of Civics and Good Citizenship in the 
Public Schools, N. E. A. 1903:98. — Philips, W. L. Pupil Cooperation 
in School Government, Ed. 22 : 538. — Guyau, J. M. Education and He- 
redity. New York, 1899. — Tompkins, A. The Philosophy of School 
Management. Boston, 1895. — French, C. W. The Problem of School 
Government, Sch. Rev. 8: 201. — Thurber, C. H. High School Self-gov- 
ernment, Sch. Rev. 5:32. — Cronson, B. Pupil Self-government. New 
York, 1908. — Parsons, F. The School City, Cent. 49:496. — Shaw, A. 
The School City, Rev. of Rev. 20 : 673. — Lang, O. H. The Common 
School Community, N. E. A. 1902 : 387. — Sears, C. R. Home and School 
Punishments, Ped. Sem. 6: 159. — Andrew, M. F. Problem of Individual- 
izing Instruction, Ed. 26:129. — Cowdrick, E. L. Some Factors of 
School Government, Ed. 24 : 367. — Clapp, H. Unrecognized Causes of 
Corporal Punishment, Ed. 25 : 490. — Mark, H. T. Individuality and the 
Moral Aim in American Education ; Military Drill in the Schools of the 
United States, C. R. 1898:479; Educational Pathology, or Self-govern- 
ment in Schools, C. R. 1901 : 235. — French, C. W. Self-government of 
High School Pupils, Sch. Rev. 6: 35 ; Corporal Punishment in City Public 
Schools, C. R. 1905 : 205 ; Corporal Punishment, C. R. 1901 : 2402 ; 1902 : 
2385 ; 1903 : 2452 ; 1904 : 2285. — Lincoln, H. H. School Discipline, Am. 
Inst, of Instr. 1867 : 113. — Smith, H. B. Boys and their Management 
in School. London, 1905. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

Educational Statistics ; Finance 

The Economics of School Administration has two large 
aspects : {a) The first embraces the field of school finance. 
There is required here effective measures or quantitative 
statements of income and outgo so expressed as to show the 
relations between the two, and between income and the re- 
sults to be accomplished, {b) The second involves quantita- 
tive description of the work of education itself, apart from 
its financial aspects, in terms of children to be educated, 
teachers and materials utilized, and results accomplished. 

Financial Accounting in Public Education is of importance, 
because, like other phases of public accounting, it still repre- 
sents low stages of development in the science of account- 
ancy, and because it is concerned with a large part of the 
public outlay of money, which ranges from twenty-five to 
fifty per cent of all public expenditure in cities, and is about 
forty per cent of all state and local expenditure. Corruption 
has probably not played so large a part in school finance as 
in other departments of public administration, but waste and 
maladministration are not less common there than elsewhere, 
owing to the difficulty of discovering the relation of causes 
and effects in education. 

The Purposes of Accounting in public education are three- 
fold : {a) the making of records of income and expenditure 
so as to accurately and fully describe transactions — the aims 
of ordinary effective bookkeeping ; {b) the organization and 
interpretation of all information of a financial nature so that 
it may become a means of administrative control — that is, 
shall enable the authorities to make their work more efficient 
on the one hand, and more economical on the other ; and {c) 
such organization, interpretation, and publication as will 

521 



522 Educational Administration 

make for extensive and full publicity,^ These three pur^ 
poses cannot be always pursued in the same way, and of the 
three, remembering that American education depends for its 
development on the confidence and cooperation of the body 
of citizens, the last is the most important, although it can only 
be realized by having the first two ends fully met. The first 
of these objects (bookkeeping) needs no extended discussion 
here, as the science of accounts is to-day sufficiently well de- 
veloped to enable any board of education to obtain from 
specialists proper guidance. 

Administrative control as an aim of educational accounting 
depends upon such alignment of the facts of finance and 
their interpretation as will enable the authorities, e.g., to 
locate divisions which are absorbing too much money, or re- 
ceiving an insufficient amount ; or to correctly apportion 
money to various divisions according to need and productive- 
ness. In a school system this may be accomplished by a 
careful classification of items of expenditure followed by a 
reduction of these to some unit basis. School supplies and 
text-books, for example, may have their cost for each school 
expressed in terms of the unit of average daily attendance. 
Under some circumstances, for exact comparison, it might be 
desirable to have these also indicated by grades, in order to 
discover unusual variations in particular classes. Fuel, as 
distributed to various schools, should have its value reduced 
to some unit — number of pupils in the school, number of 
rooms to be heated, or perhaps better, number of cubic feet 
or yards of space to be kept heated. Striking variations 
among buildings would stimulate inquiry, which would show 
whether peculation, wasteful firing, imperfect apparatus, or 
other causes were responsible.^ Again, for purposes of de- 
tecting variations, it is highly desirable that totals of expendi- 

1 " All governmental accounts ought to be controlled, organized, and handled 
with a view to efficiency of financial administration. They should enable any 
intelligent party in interest to follow the flow of money from the time it leaves 
the pockets of the taxpayers to the time it enters the pockets of those for whose 
services and supplies it is paid out." — Haskell, Business Education and 
Accountancy. 

2 See p. 198 for illustration. 



Educational Statistics: Finance 523 

ture, as well as unit statements, should be shown side by 
side over a series of years, since this will disclose fluctua- 
tions that point the way for special investigation. Many 
striking variations will always have legitimate causes, as 
where, for example, the per capita cost of a school is raised 
by the large amount of absence caused through sickness, but 
the desirable thing is that all variations should be explained, 
and legitimate causes dissociated from illegitimate ones. 

Within a single school system the following form of classi- 
fication used in the published report of a city is serviceable. 
For the sake of a more effective published report, the classi- 
fication might be improved if these details and a few others 
(like bonds, payments for buildings, interest charges, etc.) 
were themselves classified under such main heads as Tuition, 
Maintenance, Fixed Charges, Permanent Improvements, and 
Miscellaneous (Table I). 

The Department of Superintendence of the National Educa- 
tional Association in 1899 received the report of a special 
committee on Uniform Financial Reports recommending the 
following summary statement. The chief objection to this 
classification is its grouping of current expenses, where, for 
purposes of administrative control, it is highly desirable that 
there should be segregation, which might induce comparison 
of school with school and year with year. It is true that the 
accounts of the school system might present these in segre- 
gated form ; but in practice the tendency is always to arrange 
accounts chiefly with a view to the final form of report 
(Table II). 



524 



Educational Administration 

Table I 

GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCHOOL EXPENDITURES 





1 


c 
« a 

s e 
o 


c 

V 

ra 
1 

a 


C O ui 

•5Pt: 


" s 

a o. 
O 


o « 

■nc/3 

e2 


.So 
c o 

(U J3 

> u 

WW 


_ , , ( Teachers 

Salaries < ^ . 

( Janitors 
















Total Salaries 




















Text and Reference Books 

Paper and Blank Books 

Drawing Materials 

Laboratory Supplies 

Janitors' Supplies 

Miscellaneous Supplies 

Supplies — Manual Training .... 

Supplies — Domestic Arts 

Tools — Manual Training 

Power — Manual Training 

Furniture and Fixtures 

Heating — Fuel 

Heating — Repairs Heating Apparatus . 

Interior Repairs 

Expenses, Supt. and Clerk 

Transportation 

Lie'htins' 










Truants — Expense and Support . . . 
Incidental Expenses 




Total Expenses (excepting Salaries) . 
















Total Ordinary Expense 
















Total Cost of Maintenance .... 

















Educational Statistics: Finance 525 



Table II 

REPORT OF SCHOOL RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES 
FOR THE YEAR 

(Scheme adopted by City Superintendents' Convention, 1899) 

1. Estimated actual value of all property in the city (or 

school district or corporation) 

2. Assessed valuation of all property in city (or school dis- 

trict or corporation) 

3. Rate of school tax levied on each dollar of assessed val- 

uation of city (or school district or corporation) . . 

RECEIPTS 

4. Received from state apportionment of taxes .... 

5. Received from county apportionment of taxes .... 

6. Received from city (or school district or corporation) 

taxes 

7. Received from fines, licenses, penalties, etc 

8. Received from all other sources, except loans and bond 

sales (specify different sources) 

9. Received from loans 

10. Received from bond sales 

11. Total receipts, all sources 

EXPENDITURES 

12. Paid for salaries of teachers and supervisors .... 

13. Paid for current expenses (excluding interest, but in- 

cluding salaries of officers, janitors, fuel and lights, 
text-books, including drawing and writing books, 
stationery, and other supplies for schools, ordinary 
repairs to buildings, and all other current expenses) . 
13J. For Library and Library Building Expenses .... 

14. Paid for sites 

15. Paid for additions and new buildings 

16. Paid for permanent furnishings and furniture .... 

17. Paid for permanent equipment for manual training, 

science, and laboratories, etc 

18. Paid for reference and library books 

19. Paid for all other permanent improvements, such as 

grading, paving, etc. (specify different expenditures). 
Paving, ; grading, ; sewers, ; con- 



526 Educational Administration 

demnations, ; curbing, ; sidewalks, ; 

trees, ; total 

20. Paid for interest 

21. Paid for principal of loans 

22. Paid for principal of bonded debt 

23. Total paid out, all purposes 

24. Cash on hand at beginning of year (net) 

25. Cash on hand at beginning of year in fund for sites and 

buildings (included in 24) 

26. Cash on hand at beginning of year and sinking fund 

(included in 24) 

27. Warrants outstanding, beginning of year 

28. Cash on hand at end of year (net) 

29. Cash on hand at end of year in fund for sites and build- 

ings (included in 28) 

30. Cash on hand at end of year in sinking fund (included 

in 28) 

31. Warrants outstanding at end of year 

32. Paid current expenses, evening schools (included in 12 

and 13) 

33. Paid current expenses, teachers' training-schools (in- 

cluded in 12 and 13) 

34. Paid current expenses, schools for defective or other 

special schools (included in 12 and 13. Specify dif- 
ferent schools) 

35. Bond school debt of city for school district or corpora- 

tion at end of year 

36. Population of city (or school district or corporation) 

37. Persons of school age, 6 to 20 years, inclusive, in city 

(or school district or corporation) 

38. Number of pupils enrolled, all schools 

39. Average number in daily membership, all schools . . 

40. Average number in daily attendance, all schools . . . 

41 . Average number in daily attendance, night schools (in- 

cluded in 40) 

42. Average number in daily attendance, teachers' training- 

schools (included in 40) 

43. Average number in daily attendance, schools for defec- 

tive or other special schools (included in 40. Specify 
different schools) 

44. Annual cost of education per pupil (sum of Nos. 12 and 

13 divided by 40) on the total enrolment, , and 

on the average daily attendance, . 



Educational Statistics : Finance 



527 



Distribution of Items of Expenditure by schools is important 
for the purpose of disclosing variations. The following table 
shows such classification of items, coupled with a statement 
of average membership, and total expense per capita. But 
for purposes of showing variations it would be an advantage 
to have per capita statements follow each main item of main- 
tenance, with possibly some modified unit to express cost of 
fuel per classroom, or 1000 cubic feet to be heated (Table 

III). 

Table III 

COST OF CONDUCTING THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS FOR THE 
YEAR ENDING JANUARY 31, 1906 

(Compiled from the books of the Accounting Department) 

HIGH SCHOOL 







Salaries 


Heating 


Text-Books, Supplies, 


and Incidentals 










rt « 


<J! If, 


c 




3 




.SJ 


i^ 


School 









01 a. 


^1 
■aPS 




ft 


2^ 


3 
„ 


a. 

3 

CO 

>-< 



g s 
































1) 












15 c« 








^ 


1— > 


3 


rt- 


E^ 







1-1 


s 




c 


High . . . 

























GRAMMAR AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS 



No. I 
No. 2 
No. 3 







HIGH SCHOOL 












"S -^ 


b« 










School 


"SO 


go 

3 3 c 

■5.BI 


•IB 
o| 


6 
u 


Cost per 
Pupil 


rt S 

C 3 

§g 


Total Cost 






gfc-a 


o« 


j: 




■^^rl 






i-i 


(4 


H 


<! 




mm 




High . . . 

















GRAMMAR AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS 



No. I 

No. 2 
No. 3 



528 



Educational Administration 



Units are indispensable in all forms of comparison of ex- 
penditure, since other factors are seldom uniform. Especially 
for purposes of publicity where it is expected that the citizen, 
of average intelligence and ability in understanding compli- 
cated statistics, will comprehend situations, totals of expendi- 
ture become meaningless, or worse, for their magnitude may 
quite fail to convey any notion of the amount of work actu- 
ally done. What the units shall be is often a matter of 
uncertainty. Most commonly the average daily attendance of 
children at the school or in the system (total number of single 
attendances for the year divided by the actual number of 
days taught) is used, and this, for many purposes, is satisfac- 
tory. But in some systems attendance fluctuates, so that it is 
also well to use other units. A table copied from one of the 
annual reports of the Buffalo schools shows use of three types 
of unit, combined with valuable forms of classification : — 

Table IV 
COST OF TUITION 



Cost per Pupil 



Registration 



Annual 



Average 
Term 



Annual 
Attendance 



Office salaries 

Teachers' salaries 

Janitors' salaries and supplies 

Free text-books, including rebinding . . . 

Free material 

Apparatus, library, printing, and stationery . 
Superintendent's total expenditures . . . 
Board of Public Works expenditures . 
Bond payments, amount retired and interest 
Total school expenditures, including bond 
payments 



% 0.27 
15. II 

1-39 
0.51 
0.27 

0-39 
18.52 

8.55 
344 

30-51 



% 0.29 
16.67 
1.54 
0.56 
0.30 
0.42 
20.43 

9.44 
3-8o 

3367 



% 0.36 

20.34 

1.88 

0.69 

0-37 

0.52 

24.92 

11.51 

4-63 

41.06 



It is highly probable, however, that some other unit of 
attendance might be more serviceable to indicate facts. The 
simplest of these complex forms is to take the three given 
above and to assign to each a proper " weight " and combine 
or average the three. Or the attendance given by months 



Educational Statistics: Finance 



529 



(average for each month) might be employed, the most com- 
mon measure of attendance by months taken. Some schools 
distribute attendance for individual pupils showing the num- 
ber by varying degrees of attendance, as 181-200 days, 161-180 
days, etc., and a satisfactory unit of educational work might 
be found by taking, e.g., the number who make more than 
100 days' attendance. But before involved units of this char- 
acter are sought, there should be a consensus of opinion and 
agreement to follow uniform plans of reporting. 

Comparison of School with School or of Year with Year is 
the chief aim of statistical comparisons based on some unit. 
The first has already been illustrated. The following table 
from the Chicago Report illustrates both an interesting form 
of classification, and shows comparisons for two years, A 
complete exhibit should, of course, show the units over a 
series of years, thus causing variations to stand out in relief. 

Table V 
STATEMENT OF PER CAPITA COST 

PER CAPITA COST FOR ALL DEPARTMENTS 



Tuition — 



1902-3 



Upon number enrolled . . . 
Upon average daily membership 
Upon average daily attendance 



M8.36 
22.20 
23-93 



$18.93 
22.41 
23.98 



(Based on total expenditures for salaries, $5,284,664.12 — not including 
evening and vacation schools.) 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



General Expenses (as given in detail above) — 


1902-3 


i9°3-4 


Upon number enrolled 


$5-44 
23.80 


$6.87 
$25.81 


(Based on total expenditures for all educational pur- 
poses, except salaries and evening and vacation 
schools.) 

Per capita cost based on total expenditures for edu- 
cational purposes, less evening and vacation 
schools — 
Upon number enrolled 





530 



Educational Administration 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS — Continued 

PER CAPITA COST OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



Based upon Total Cost of Elementary Schools — 


1902-3 


1903-4 


Upon total number enrolled 


$20.78 


$23.67 





PER CAPITA TOTAL COST OF MAINTAINING SPECIAL DEPARTMENTS AND 

SCHOOLS 



Normal School 

High Schools 

John Worthy School — Parental School 
R. T. Crane Manual Training School . 

Parental 

Schools for the Deaf 

Schools for the Blind . 

Kindergartens 

Manual Training Centres 

Household Arts — 

Upon membership enrolled .... 

Cost of material 

Drawing — 

Upon average daily membership . . 
Music — 

Upon average daily membership . . 
Physical Culture — ■ 

Upon average daily membership . . 
Evening Schools — 

Cost per pupil, per evening .... 



184-53 


$323-37 


53-79 


57.21 


25.89 


30-75 


77.00 


105.01 


211.38 


187.31 


99.58 


95.04 


179-53 


147.69 


8.60 


9.08 


1-55 


3-09 


1.03 


1-55 


— 


.66 


.09 


.067 


.042 


.047 


.047 


•073 


•154 


.144 



Another form of unit statement that is sometimes used 
with advantage is based on property valuation of the city or 
state. Total expenditure, or expenditure classified, may be 
divided by the number of thousands of dollars of property or 
assessed valuation, giving a unit which expresses the burden 
of the school system or its parts. The table would read, e.g.^ 
School expenditure of the city of M per one thousand dollars 
of valuation for {ci) office salaries, {b) teachers' salaries, {c) 



Educational StatisHcs: Finance 531 

free text-books, id) manual training high school, etc. For 
purposes of effective exhibit, this could then be compared 
with like expenditures in other cities, or with expenditures 
for other departments within the same city. 

In European countries it is not uncommon to use the total 
population, or the number of children liable to school attend- 
ance as a basis for finding units of measurement. Each has 
its advantages and weak points. Unquestionably it is desir- 
able that each American community should make a count of 
all children eligible and required to attend school, and that 
some reference should be made to this in planning for or 
accounting for school expenditure. Using these units, how- 
ever, should not serve to withhold any statement tending to 
express the work actually done by the schools, whether in 
total number of children enrolled, average number educated, 
or number held to a reasonable degree of persistent attend- 
ance in the school system. 

A Fairly Complete Exhibit, then, of school expenditure can 
be made in six tables, showing the following facts by means 
of double classifications (horizontal and vertical) or distribu- 
tions : — 

I. Expenditure (totals) by classified items and by schools. 
II. Expenditure by items (totals), and by years. 
III. Expenditure by years and by schools (totals). 
IV. Expenditure by items and by schools (per capita). 
V. Expenditure by items and by years (per capita). 
VI. Expenditure by years and by schools (per capita). 

In a small school system all the above facts can be shown 
in three separate tables, the per capita statements following 
items in special columns. 

Other forms of statement occasionally prove useful. For 
example, of the total annual expenditure for education in a 
state, county, or city, what percentages fall under different 
heads, like teachers' salaries, buildings, maintenance, etc. ? 
Over a series of years, or among different classes of schools, 
or among individual schools, the statement may prove of 
value as showing unsuspected variations, channels of exces- 
sive outgo, etc. The following is a useful form : — 



532 



Educational Administration 



Table VI 



Report 

OF 

Year 



Teachers' 
Wages 



Per 
Cent 



Fuel 
and 
Inci- 
dentals 



Per 
Cent 



New 
Build- 
ings 



Per 
Cent 



Repairs 



Per 
Cent 



Other 
Objects 



Per 
Cent 



For administrative purposes it is, of course, necessary to 
have a schedule showing salaries paid to individual teachers, 
but for pubHcation this may be too long. But for the sake of 
informing the public, it is highly desirable to have some form 
showing salaries paid. The following, from the Erie Report, 
has the advantage of compactness, and enables two sets of 
facts to be shown on the same page : — 

Table VII 

TEACHERS — 1901-1902 







To- 
tal 


No. edu- 
cated 

wholly in 
Erie 


No. gradu- 
ated from 
Erie High 
School 


No Erie 

Training 

Class 


No. hold- 

ing State 

Normal, 

College, or 

University 

Cert. 


No. 
having 
taught 
previous 
to Erie 


Certificate 


Experience 


Prov. 


Prof. 


Perm. 


Less than i year 
One .... 
Two .... 
Three. . . . 


8 
22 
20 
20 


8 
15 

17 


8 

18 
20 
19 


8 
17 
19 
15 


2 


2 


8 
22 

5 
3 


15 
14 


I 





German 
Teachers 


Principals 


Number receiving per Month 


Experience 


As 

Eng- 
lish 


As 
Ger- 
man 


As 

Teacher 

only 


As 
Prin- 
cipal 


$20 
to 

$25 


$26 
to 

$30 


$31 
to 

$35 


$36 
to 
$40 


$106 

to 
$110 


$121 
to 

$125 


$136 

to 
$140 


$156 
to 

$160 


$181 

to 

$i8s 


$211 

to 

$215 


Less than i year 
One .... 
Two .... 
Three. . . . 


2 
2 


S 

I 


I 




I 


6 

7 

I 
I 


2 

10 
3 

I 


2 
16 
IS 




; ; 











Educational Statistics: Fina^ice ^xx 

Publicity. — In the last analysis the support, financial and 
moral, of public education must come from the masses of 
people who, in a democracy, constitute the powers of control. 
To procure the cooperation of intelligent citizens who gener- 
ally create the public opinion which others follow, it is essen- 
tial that those standing in expert relations to the public school 
systems should court publicity. Legislators, members of 
boards of education, and other interested citizens are not able 
to follow the intricacies of obscure statistical presentation, 
either from lack of time or lack of ability. It is necessary, 
if they are to be kept informed, that quantitative statements 
of all sorts should be exhibited in the plainest possible form, 
reduced to easily comprehended units, and interpreted by 
graphs or language where necessary. 

For this purpose the various devices mentioned before — 
classification of items, double distributions of items and 
schools, items and years, schools and years, and each reduced 
to a per capita basis — can be used. Similar showings on 
the basis of entire revenue of the community or its assessed 
valuation, comparing the expenditure of the schools with the 
expenditure of other departments of local government, are 
desirable, always coupled, as far as may be, with a showing 
as to the accomplishments of the schools. It is also of impor- 
tance to compare one community with another, one state with 
another, or one type of school in one city with similar types 
elsewhere. 

The Published Report. — American cities and states have 
for many years pubhshed extensive annual or biennial reports. 
Most of these had their beginnings in the first half of the 
nineteenth century, and grew up in response to the demand 
for some form of public accounting for money spent. These 
reports have become the chief instruments of publicity, and 
in the making of them it is possible to conceal or to reveal 
much concerning the actual conditions of the work of public 
education. In smaller communities where the limited circu- 
lation would not justify the printing of a separate pamphlet, 
it has become customary in many places, and legally required 
in some, that financial statements should be pubhshed in 



534 Educational Administration 

papers of local circulation. The value of the published 
report depends {a) upon its truthfulness, ib) upon its explicit- 
ness in clear classification and easily understood statement, 
and id) upon the amount of interpretation and comparison 
which is provided. In the very small system, an itemized 
statement of income and expenditures may suffice, since any 
interested citizen can follow the list through and gain some 
notion of channels of expenditure. But in the large system 
true publicity can be attained in no such way ; no citizen can 
follow through many pages of accounts and be expected to 
interpret them in the interests of education. Here publicity 
can only be attained by carefully digested tables, showing 
classified totals and per capita reductions as previously ex- 
plained. Reports of this kind assume peculiar significance 
when used comparatively, when city is placed against city, 
and state against state. 

REFERENCES 

Allen, W. H. Efficient Democracy. New York, 1907. — Allen, W. H. 
School Policy via School Facts, Sch. Rev. 33 : 474. — Elliott. Fiscal 
Aspects of School Expenditure. New York (Col. Univ. Press) 1905. — 
Greenwood, J. M. Report of Nat. Ed. Assn., Com. of Taxation. — Has- 
kins, C. W. Business Education and Accountancy. New York, 1904. — 
Harris, W. T. The Political Economy of School Finances, Ed. Rev. 
29:486. — Harris, W. T. Some Conditions which cause Variation in 
School Finances, Proc. N. E. A. 1905 : 195. — Hinsdale, B. A. The Busi- 
ness Side of City School Systems, Proc. N. E. A. 1888:310. — Martin, 
G. H. The Business Basis for Public Schoohng, Ed. 26 : 137. — Martin, G. 
H. Comparison of Modern Business Methods with Educational Methods, 
Proc. N. E. A. 1905 : 320. — Pearse, G. G. Report of Nat. Ed. Assn., Com. 
on Finance Reports, Proc. N. E. A. 1899 • 344- — Snedden, D., and Allen, 
W. H. School Reports and School Efficiency. New York, 1907. — 
Strayer, G. D. City School Expenditures. New York (Col. Univ. 
Press) 1905 ; Rep. of Com. of Ed. 1899: 489 (Uniform Financial Reports 
for Public Schools). In the Proceedings of the Fifth and Seventh Con- 
ferences of the National Municipal League (New York, 1899 and 1901) 
are several papers devoted mainly to problems of improved accounting in 
public service. 



CHAPTER XXX 

Educational Statistics : School Records and Reports 

School Economics. — The fundamental object of school 
administration is to accomplish a maximum of educational 
work with a minimum outlay of energy, as expressed in terms 
of money, time, and wear and tear of personal powers. The 
art and science of measuring these factors and sg utilizing 
the measurements as to elicit better results may be c<xlled the 
economics of school administration. In the previous chapter 
the means of accounting for financial outlay have been dis- 
cussed. In this some attempt will be made to indicate the 
main features of the far more difficult subject of accounting 
for the children with whom education deals, and expressing 
the results of their training in tangible terms. 

Objections to School Economics are held by many well- 
meaning educators and others who fear that to apply statisti- 
cal methods to those school matters in which children are 
concerned will tend to increase the mechanizing tendencies 
already prevalent in education. To such persons the highly 
desirable thing is that teachers and administrators shall be 
induced to look upon the child as individual in every case, 
with a special personality demanding attention. They fear 
that the attempt to provide extensive statistical methods will 
have the effect of making the educational administrators see 
the child merely as a unit in a vast system, subject to various 
kinds of measurement and mechanical process. An influen- 
tial demand at present is that the school shall be socialized, 
that mechanical grading shall be rendered more flexible, and 
that childrc^n shall be individually studied with reference to 
temperament, physical condition, fitness for promotion, and 
the like. These are matters, so it is often felt, which do not 
render themselves subject to counting processes and quanti- 

535 



53^ Educational Administration 

tative interpretations. More dealing with children as indi- 
viduals and less regimentation in the schools is sought. 

The Reasons for School Economics are found, however, in 
the fact that education must deal with children by classes and 
by groups, and that for the sake of economy and efficiency 
the schools must constitute a system, and cannot be subject 
at all stages to individual adjustment. The purposes of edu- 
cational statistics are to aid in describing the field in which 
education works and to exhibit, as far as may be, the results 
of such work ; and this can only be done by some such form 
of educational bookkeeping as will show classified totals, 
ratios, relations, and effects. An illustration will show this : 
The truant is peculiarly a child who must be dealt with 
individually. He is reported as a unit by the teacher or the 
principal, is sought individually by the truant officer, his 
home surroundings investigated, and his parents informed 
with respect to their responsibility. In the treatment of the 
truant, ungraded classes are formed, special teachers provided, 
and possibly he may be taken away from parental control. 
But, partly because the case is so individualized, it often 
happens that in a city system little attention is given to 
truancy as a social and educational phenomenon. Truants 
vary much among themselves, but by assembling in statistical 
fashion the facts regarding them, common features may be 
disclosed which may become valuable aids in the control and 
guidance of educational practice. 

Questions like the following can only be answered statis- 
tically : (a) How prevalent is truancy, i.e. what percentage 
of pupils are truant .'' {b) What are the kinds of truancy, e.g. 
intermittent and occasional, or persistent, with or without 
connivance of parents ? (r) What are the characteristics of 
the truant children as regards, e.g., age, sex, grade, quality 
of school work, regularity of attendance, health, social inter- 
ests in school } {d) What are the concomitants of truancy, 
e.g., in the economic condition of the home, distance child 
lives away from school, nationality of parents, failure of pro- 
motion ? (^) What are the results of treatment, e.g., of the 
truants who are sent back to classes, what percentage do a 



Educational Statistics 537 

given grade of school work, how many or what proportion 
simply " mark time," what proportion of those sent to paren- 
tal school succeed better, etc. ? What is desired here is to 
find common characteristics which will at least point the way 
to some form of administrative treatment. If, for example, 
it is found that in one class of truants, ill health is a common 
characteristic, then remedies along this line are worth exami- 
nation. If truancy usually seems an accompaniment of 
failure of promotion, then investigation of the conditions of 
promotion and the making of special provision for non-pro- 
moted children are in order. 

Defects in Existing Records. — School economics suffer 
at the present time from the weaknesses that have been 
common to other fields of science in the earlier stages of 
their development. School records are especially defective 
in their failure to provide information that extends over a 
series of years regarding any child, so that the history of one 
or more children may be gathered. As a rule, records are 
made for the year only, and after one or two seasons it is 
impossible, except at great labor, to gather information over 
a series of years about a considerable number of children. 
A second conspicuous defect is in the undeveloped character 
of units of measure, except those used in counting children. 
Standards of scholarship, e.g., are very bad ; while standards 
of moral or physical condition are so imperfect as to be 
usually quite unserviceable. A third defect found in existing 
records is that they waste much energy in the making, names 
and other data being too often duplicated. They lack com- 
pactness and organization. Various kinds of records are 
separated from each other so that effective correlation be- 
comes impossible. A fourth defect in records is in the lack 
of uniformity of standards as used in different cities and 
states. Owing to this, comparisons are impossible, or can be 
instituted only with great difficulty. 

Defects of Existing Reports in School Economics find their 
origin largely in defective primary records, for if these are 
variable and fugitive, reports that cover a considerable time 
cannot be worth much. It is from collected records that we 



538 Educational Administration 

expect to derive information which will show general facts 
in the statistical sense. But these require similar classifica- 
tions, use of uniform units and standards, and compactness 
in the original record, so as to render the assembling of a 
report an easy matter. Teachers now keep too many poor 
records and make too many unserviceable reports ; progress 
consists in getting a much more valuable return for the ex- 
penditure of less energy on the part of teachers and others 
engaged in the making of reports. 

The Field of School Economics embraces, among other 
phases, descriptions of {a) children to be educated, {1?) chil- 
dren under the educative process, ic) results of education, 
and id) relations between various sets of the above facts. In 
each case the primary record is individual and should be 
preserved as far as possible so as to make available a com- 
plete account of each pupil. In most cases, the records may 
be assembled under proper classifications to exhibit general 
facts that are of importance. Again, two or more sets of 
facts with regard to a given individual may be taken off in 
such a way as to preserve their relationship ; and many of 
these relationship records may be assembled for the purpose 
of discovering prevailing or general relationships. 

Enumeration and Description of Children to be Educated. — 
The common practice in American education is to present to 
the parent the open school and to allow him to send his child, 
if he wishes. In recent times compulsory education begins 
to play some part, but the law is left to be enforced by some 
citizen, member of the Board of Education, or special officer, 
who accidentally learns of cases of non-attendance and who 
brings pressure to bear upon the delinquent parent. As a 
rule, it has not been thought necessary to have made a com- 
plete enumeration of all children liable to school attendance 
and a subsequent checking up of attendance to discover 
whether the law is being complied with. In many of the 
states where a portion of the money for the use of the 
schools is distributed on the basis of the enumeration of 
pupils of school age, a complete census is taken, in most 
cases annually ; but that it serves no purpose other than that 



Educational Statistics 539 

of a counting is shown by the fact that commonly only classi- 
fied totals are turned into the official records, no means being 
taken to preserve the individual records. Hence this school 
census becomes valueless as a description of children liable to 
attend school ; it is only an enumeration. 

In large cities where local public opinion plays little part 
in compelling attendance, and where the hit-and-miss method 
prevails of having attendance officers browse around in 
search of children not attending, the need of some adequate 
description of all children is keenly felt. The enforcement 
of child labor laws, the provision of special means of educa- 
tion for defective children, and the oversight of children 
being educated under private auspices is at present rendered 
difficult or impossible, owing to the lack of information re- 
garding those who are not in the public schools. Facts of 
age, state of health, place of employment, condition as re- 
gards educational attainments, and others of similar nature, 
which are very important from the standpoint of social 
economy, are obtainable only with extreme difficulty. 

Permanent Registration. — Undoubtedly urban communities, 
especially, will sooner or later adopt the plan of having per- 
manent registration of all children of school age, records be- 
ing preserved in such a way as to show amount of school 
attendance made each year, whether in public or private 
school, amount of time employed, whether physically defec- 
tive, amount of attendance and absence from school, with 
reasons for absence, etc. For purposes of business adminis- 
tration this registration would take the form of a card cata- 
logue, so arranged that each card could receive the record of a 
given child for at least ten years. Each area surrounding a 
given school or group of schools would have its card catalogue of 
all children resident in the area. During the weeks preceding 
the opening of school each year, the attendance officers would 
be busy making out the cards of new families who had moved 
into the district. Shortly after the opening of school, the 
attendance officers would sort the cards temporarily, so as to 
segregate the cards of children not yet registered in the school. 
These cards could then be separated into groups, according to 



540 Educational Administration 

the probability that the children not yet enrolled were illegally 
absent, and the homes of these could be immediately visited. 

Special Features of Registration. — ^The ordinary school 
census, taken usually by incompetent and indifferent people, 
can be made to contain only meagre information. But if taken 
by attendance officers who give themselves regularly to this 
business, these could soon learn to get information of a much 
more important character. Some children, for example, must 
be kept out of school because of ill health. When so reported 
to the census officer, he can, if regularly employed in attend- 
ance work, take note of the matter and later procure the 
necessary physician's certificate. Again, the school census 
as taken can make only the statement that pupils are at pri- 
vate or public school, but it is not practicable to obtain any 
evidence as to actual amount of attendance made. It is well 
known that in the case of parochial schools much irregularity 
occurs. But if permanent registration were in the hands 
of attendance officers, it would be their business to procure 
records of attendance from parochial schools which would be 
entered each year on the registration cards. On the cards 
would be recorded at the close of the year the character of the 
attendance of each pupil, with brief information regarding 
other facts which should be known of children under obliga- 
tion to attend school. If the child be transferred from one 
school to another, his registration could be sent by mail if that 
seemed desirable ; otherwise the fact of his transfer could be 
simply noted on it. 

The Service of this System of Registration for social economy 
would be very great. The weight of modern social reform is 
centering about the child, for it is more and more evident 
that society can be best reformed by giving attention to 
children of the community so as to preserve their health, their 
moral character, and their intelligence. The most effective 
social work is that which seeks to save children from pre- 
mature labor, which insures them their full educational rights, 
and which aims to detect and prevent in early stages both 
moral and physical deterioration. But the labor of the various 
agencies engaged in these matters is rendered difficult and, to 



Educational Statistics 541 

some extent, ineffective by lack of suitable information re- 
garding the children of the community.^ The public school 
is the one agency sufficiently authoritative to obtain and pre- 
serve the necessary information ; and it should be able 
to do it with little increase in the forces now available, pro- 
vided these worked under competent direction. 

Attendance Officers are now found in every city system of 
schools. The number varies from one to each two thousand 
school children to one for each ten thousand. At present 
they have had no special training, they act with little system 
and under insufficient oversight, and their work is exceedingly 
fragmentary and without permanent result. There is no in- 
herent reason why, in large cities, they should not be care- 
fully supervised, given the mechanical means of performing 
their work effectively, and brought into close contact with 
probation officers, factory inspectors, and other special workers 
with children. Each officer should know his own area well, 
and it would be no difficult matter for such a person to keep 
a constant registration of a district containing five thousand 
children of school age, and to perform all other duties attach- 
ing to his office. Imperfect examples of registration of this 
form are now found in a few cities, where it has developed 
through utilization of the results of the ordinary school 
census. In continental European countries there exists a 
variety of forms of police registration of all people, so that 
information regarding children is easily obtainable. But in 
America complete registration would prove very unpopular, 
doubtless, and would be far more complicated than anything 
needed for the above defined purposes. 

Census Reports and Statistics. — It can easily be seen that 
if we once possessed some form of complete registration such 
as that outlined above, it would be a simple clerical task to 
compile a variety of forms of statistical presentation in order 
to obtain general facts regarding potential school population. 
Tables showing numbers of children distributed by sex, age, 

1 The issuance of labor certificates is now a complicated matter because of the 
lack of satisfactory records ; a registration system would largely settle the age 
question, because few parents misstate the ages of children when they are young. 



542 Educational Adminislralion 

nationality, place of residence, could be easily made, as they 
now are in school censuses. But to these could be added 
many other valuable reports : tables showing numbers of chil- 
dren distributed according to school attendance, both in 
public and in private schools ; the number of children physi- 
cally or mentally incapacitated from attending public schools 
and the disposition made of them ; the number of children 
from fourteen to sixteen or eighteen employed, and the kind 
of work followed ; the character of non-attendance or im- 
perfect attendance as distributed among such causes as sick- 
ness, truancy, etc. ; and many others. 

POPULATION 

Population of city, 1900 (United States census) 62,059 

Population of the city, 1903 (estimated) 66,446 

SCHOOL CENSUS 
Number of children in Springfield between five and fifteen years 
of age, Sept. i, 1903 ii>49° 

Distributed as follows : 





syr. 


6yr. 


7yr. 


13 yr. 


13 yr- 


I4yr. 


Totals 


Ward I 

Ward 2 

In public schools 

In parochial schools .... 

In private schools 

Number not attending school . 
















Totals 
















Totals for 1902 

Totals for 1901 

















School Census Returns. — The school census as now taken is 
usually reported in the form of classified totals, and brief reca- 
pitulations of these are published in some city reports. From 
the examples given here of some of the best, it is evident that 
they can convey to the interested citizen comparatively little 
information. Even these, however, if they were compactly 



Educational Statistics 



543 



united with tables showing school attendance, would be more 
illuminating. The preceding form used in a public school 
report of Springfield, Massachusetts, is unusually good. 

Another form used in the Milwaukee schools shows the 
additional fact of amount of school attendance made. It is 
obvious that any statement of children merely enrolled in the 
public schools is inadequate, in view of the very large num- 
ber who enrol and stay but a short time. 

ANNUAL ENUMERATION OF PERSONS OF SCHOOL AGE 
RESIDING IN THE CITY OF MILWAUKEE, JUNE 30, 1905 





Ward 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 


Attended 
Public 
Schools 

32 Weeks 
or more 


Attended 
Private 
Schools 

32 Weeks 
or more 


Children between 

7 and 14 who 
did not attend 32 
Weeks or more 


First .... 
Second . . . 
Third . . . 














Totals . . 















Ward 


Number of each Age 




4 


S 


6 


7 


IS 


16 


17 


i8 


19 


First 

Second 

Third 




















Totals 





















The published census report of Philadelphia classifies chil- 
dren by race, and also shows totals by race and sex of those 
from thirteen to sixteen attending school, while another table 
shows those from thirteen to sixteen working, and the kind of 
employment followed. Unfortunately no comparative tables 
are presented with these showing the number of children 
from thirteen to sixteen attending school. 

The "Work of the Schools can be, to some extent, quantita- 
tively described by showing such facts as {ci) school attend- 



544 Educational Administration 

ance (classified by ages, grades, scholarship, persistence of 
attendance, nationality, different types of schools, deport- 
ment, health conditions, etc.) ; {b) withdrawals (similarly 
classified, at least occasionally as a matter for administrative 
study); {c) promotions and non-promotions (also classified 
according to various probable influencing conditions); and 
{d) scholarship and amount of work accomplished in regular 
or special classes. 

Attendance Records and Reports. — These form the univer- 
sal measure of the work of the school, since they show the 
number of children sent and the extent of their demands 
upon the school. Commonly, the record of attendance or 
absence is made in a register which lists all the names in a 
given class, and which register may also contain records of 
other facts, like age, name of parent, grade, and sometimes 
scholarship. At the end of the month or year attendance, 
absence, and tardiness may be summarized. Almost univer- 
sally a new register is used for each year, so that it becomes 
a difficult matter to trace back the attendance record of 
any individual pupil. Hardly ever is a form of record used 
which will give the pupil's attendance over a series of years 
in one compact statement. 

General Measures of Attendance are widely used in school 
reports as a means of indicating the extent of the work of 
the school. There is some lack of uniformity among dif- 
ferent states and cities, but the following are most common : 
{cl) total enrolment, the entire number of names appearing 
on all the registers, and including frequently a certain num- 
ber of duplications where children have moved from one 
school to another ; {b) net enrolment, where duplications are 
excluded — frequently a difficult process where statistical 
representations are being made for an entire state ; {c) 
average enrolment, or average register, which is a most 
variable form ; and {d) average daily attendance, which is 
most commonly found by dividing the total number of days' 
attendance by the total number of days taught ; and {e) 
average number belonging, or number belonging (sometimes 
same as net register). Any one of these measures may be 



Educational Statistics 



545 



used to indicate the scope of the work of the school, but it 
is most customary to use {d) (average daily attendance). 
To indicate the relative amount of absence, it is necessary to 
distinguish between pupils who are temporarily absent from 
the school, and those who have withdrawn. Usually three 
or five days is allowed to an absent pupil, during which time 
he retains his right to his seat ; but if his absence continues 
longer, he is assumed to have left school, in which case he is 
not technically absent. The character of attendance, then, 
is shown by comparing the number of days' attendance with 
the total number of days during which all pupils were on 
register, i.e. were not "withdrawn," and the attendance 
stated in terms of per cent. Much as this measure is used, 
it can easily be shown that it is quite valueless as a true 
measure of persistency of attendance. 

Table VIII 

SHOWING CHARACTER OF ATTENDANCE OF PUPILS IN 

EACH SCHOOL OR GRADE FOR THE YEAR 





Pupils Attending — Days 


— .s 

"re'-a 
< 


c 
u 

<; 

o 

12; 


>> 

S 

H 
o 




'e 


^§ 

c u 
HO 


3 


Names of 

Schools 

OR Grade 


8 


I 


1 


i 




8 




1 


"a. 
I 




-let 


2 

"3 

o 
H 


First Grade 

or 
School No. I 
Second Grade 

or 
School No. 2 







































A Distribution Table of Attendance is for most purposes of 
statistical presentation a much more satisfactory measure, 
and requires a little more labor in its making. For each 
school a sheet of paper is provided, ruled horizontally for 
grades, perhaps divided as to boys and girls, and ruled verti- 
cally so that the first space will contain the checks and 
totals for all those who have made 200 days' attendance, the 
second space for all who have made from 180 to 199!^ days' 
attendance, the third for those with 160 to i/g^- days, etc. 
As the teacher making the report reads down the final column 



546 



Educational Administration 



of her register (containing term or year totals) she will make 
for each pupil a check in its appropriate space, after which 
totals can be readily indicated. The preceding form shows 
how such a report should appear, as it would be summarized for 
an entire system, and classified either by schools or by grades. 
Another form of table for showing the same facts has 
opposite each number its percentage of the whole, which 
facilitates comparison : — 

Table IX 

SHOWING TIME OF PUPILS' CONTINUANCE IN SCHOOL 





Boys and Girls 


Schools 


> 

n 
W 
u 

H 


u 

o 'So 
'O d 


■a 
« g 

•5 ^ 

c c 
o rt 


o 'So 
U 6 


13 
a 


"o -o 

o '3) 

g (^ 
O 6 

^^ 
p4 


-a 
c 


u 

o 'S) 

g (^ 
O 6 

S3 :?; 


c 
n 

— 
« 3 

o o 


Is 

^ i 

'o 'Eb 


o 
g 
►3 


"o 'm 

g "^ 

CJ 6 
P^ 


1 « 

5'l 


No. I 
No. 2 
No. 3 





























An example of another form is that which shows the char- 
acter of attendance as to its regularity : — 

Table X 

SHOWING THE DEGREE OF REGULARITY OF ATTEND- 
ANCE IN THE SEVERAL SCHOOLS 











»-H 
































































































ffi 








jj 


pj 









J4 






j= 


-i! 






2 












^ 


•o 


o 

c 


-i! 




T3 


•a 
c 
« 


— 


-o 


1)-. 


i 


j; 


■a 


o 


^ 

h 


"n 


■O 




_« 


T3 




Schools 


c 


J2 


1 


1 






m 






a 


>> 






>. 




i 


1* 


J3 


t: 








C5 


hll 






o 


Ml 






o 




a 


o 


Nl 




P 


o 


b/l 




O 










C 

U 




s 


P< 


c 
U 


Pi 

6 


o 

c 


o 

c 

rt 


U 


d 


O 


P 
O 


4-» 


d 


H 


CJ 


rt 
d 


H Ph 


B 
CJ 


d 


o 






t. 


iz; 


n 


M 


Vh 


^ 


J2 




u 


;z; 


n 


H 


>- 


:? 


j3 


H 


)n 


;z; 


iJ P 


iH 


^ 


o 




;z; 


Ph 




<J 




(i; 




O 




p; 




<! 




PM 




<: 




Qh 




■< 


pi 




H 


No. r 
















































No. 2 
















































No. 3 

















































Educational Statistics 547 

The Uses of Distribution Tables are not so varied as those 
of the more compact average, especially for purposes of 
making per capita statements, although even here it is 
entirely possible that the use of the midmost measure (the 
median) in a distribution series would be more serviceable 
and accurate than the average. But as a means of indicating 
most fully and yet in compact form the range of attendance, 
these tables are desirable. Even more than in describ- 
ing elementary school attendance should they be used 
with reference to evening schools, vacation classes, and 
playgrounds, where attendance is much more fluctuating 
and where the average is an altogether insufficient state- 
ment. 

Other Statements of attendance are sometimes found in 
use. The actual enrolment on a series of days selected at 
random and averaged is deemed in some cities a better meas- 
ure than the yearly average. Sometimes the total enrolment 
for each month is taken and these averaged for the 
year. 

Grade and Age of pupils usually appear in registers, but 
the summarizing of these facts so as to preserve the relation- 
ship for statistical purposes has seldom been accomplished 
in reports. From the standpoint of the work of the school 
it is of importance to know how, in general, the age of pupils 
runs for the various grades. Much attention has been given 
recently to retardation in the elementary school, and to the 
large amount of withdrawal in the intermediate grades. 
Until the facts of the relation of age and grade were ascer- 
tained, it was difficult to do more than guess at the extent and 
real causes of the failure of considerable numbers of pupils 
to finish the grades. The making of reports, however, to 
show the main facts is a simple matter, if the data already 
appear in the register. A sheet ruled into horizontal spaces 
for each grade, divided as to sex, and vertically for the various 
ages, can be used, and teachers can simply check off records 
for each individual pupil from the registers. It may be noted 
that in many cases where this is now done, the results are 
vitiated by lack of definiteness regarding age records. The 



548 



Educational Administration 



report should always give the exact date at which the com- 
pilation takes place, and state explicitly (if the report is made 
about promotion time) whether the grades reported are those 
in which the pupils have been for the past term or the grades 
to which they are just going. Again, the age column should be 
explicit as to what ages are included. The following form is 
one that has been found acceptable in Boston, modified in a 
few respects : — 

Table XI 



DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN RESPECT TO AGE AND 
GRADE, JUNE 30 

(The grade is that in which pupils have been for last half-year.) 







Exact Age at Above Date 


Grades 


Under 
4^ Years 


45 Years 

and less 
than 5j 


55 and less 
than 65 




4th Year Class P^^s 

( Girls 

3d Year Class P^^" 

^ (Girls 

2d Year Class P^^^ 

(Girls 

1st Year Class P^^^ 

(Girls 










'sth Grade P^^^ 

\ Girls 

7th Grade 1 ^^^^ 

(Girls 









For purposes of administrative control it would frequently 
be very desirable to have teachers compile special reports 
for certain classes of pupils : {a) showing, e.g., age and grade 
of non-promoted pupils ; ib) of pupils who have made only 
seventy per cent of attendance ; {/) of pupils in special 
classes ; id) evening school pupils, or those coming to vaca- 



Educational Statistics 549 

tion schools, etc. Any one of the above double distribution 
tables, either as a whole or for separate classes or schools, 
can easily be reduced to diagrammatic form and have its 
effectiveness for purposes of publicity greatly increased.^ 

Nationality and Occupation of parents is sometimes made 
a matter of school record and reports compiled. Usually the 
totals presented are quite valueless, because no relationships 
can be arrived at. For example, it may be shown that a total 
of 1000 children of foreign parents have attended school, or 
have been irregular in attendance, etc.; but until we know the 
total number of children of foreign parents, in order to get 
a basis of comparison, the figures avail little. Within limits 
it is of course significant that children of bricklayers in a con- 
siderable number attend high school, and that a given number 
of pupils graduating are Jews. But the real significance of 
these facts for administrative purposes comes out when rela- 
tionships are shown, and under present forms of record these 
can rarely be developed. 

Other Facts Descriptive of pupils attending school might be 
recorded and reports compiled, if their value could be shown. 
For example, records of deportment are usually preserved, 
and sometimes facts of health condition. But seldom are 
these assembled in statistical form. The lack of adequate 
classification, the inability of teachers to make satisfactory 
records, and the prevalent belief that statistics on these and 
related subjects are quite worthless, have all served as reasons 
for their lack of development. It is evident that in school 
administration little progress has yet been made in describing 
in any adequate and comprehensive way the children with 
whom the schools have to deal. 

Results of School Work. — Naturally after a description of 
the number, age, grade, and character of children with whom 
the schools deal, interest must centre in the results of such 
school work. The criticisms made in the last paragraph apply 
here with even more force. Beyond enumeration of pro- 
motions and occasionally the totals of non-promotions, teachers 
are required to report little that is of significance. Scholar- 

1 See Snedden and Allen, School Reports and School Efficiency, pp. 6l ff . 



550 Educational Administration 

ship records for individual pupils are always preserved, but 
statistical assembling and reporting of such records is rarely 
attempted. Even statements of promotions and non-promotions 
are usually made in terms of pupils attending during the last 
month, and take no account of those who have dropped out 
during the year. In upper grades and high school there is 
a constant falling away of pupils, but the real relations of 
this withdrawal to the efficiency or lack of efficiency of the 
school is almost never shown in any quantitative way. It 
is to be hoped that we are at the beginning of an era of 
study of school efficiency, but such studies will at first have 
to depend upon data gathered by special workers, since 
existing school records and reports yet provide very little 
information. 

Improvement of School Records and Reports. — It is evident 
that so far no systematic study has been made of the matter 
of scientific record and report of the facts of school population 
and school work. Records of pupils extending over a series 
of years have been made in but few cases ; means of clas- 
sifying any but the simplest facts of attendance have not yet 
been devised; and means of showing relationship between 
different sets of related facts have almost never been used. 
Under present conditions many teachers are already over- 
burdened with the making of records and reports, most of 
which have no value. The use of semi-automatic devices in 
this field has received little attention. The kinds of blanks 
employed demand, for example, the constant rewriting of the 
names of pupils. It is small wonder that teachers look 
askance at the making of additional reports, in view of the 
futility of those now made. No attempt can be made here to 
anticipate what should be the work of a well-qualified com- 
mittee designated especially to introduce adequate methods 
in school economics. But from the practice of individual 
school systems the following suggestions are derived and 
somewhat expanded : — 

a. The Daily Register. — This should be constructed with 
inset leaves so that it will take on one or two pages the entire 
enrolment of a class for a term or a year, the names requiring 



Educational Statistics 551 

to be written but once. Inset pages should be designated for 
all facts which it is desirable to record during the year, includ- 
ing monthly or, preferably, quarterly scholarship summariza- 
tions. Exact records of age, grade, address, name of parent, 
etc., should appear on appropriate pages. Further matters 
of record should be made under as close classification as may 
be devised. Such facts as : nationality of father, of mother ; 
economic status of family (in terms of rent paid, wage, 
etc.) ; outside labor of the child ; distance lived away from 
school ; deportment ; condition of health ; special outside 
interests (as athletics, etc.) — might also be made matters of 
record if it seemed that such data could be readily obtained 
and classified (not by any means an impossible feat), and if 
it could be demonstrated that its collection would be worth 
while from the standpoint of social economy, of which school 
administration must increasingly be regarded as a phase. 
This data need not all be collected and recorded at once, 
but might be gathered in the course of the year. The register 
might also be made to show, in addition to the fact of the 
withdrawal of certain pupils, the alleged causes of such with- 
drawal, as far as such are obtainable. It can be easily 
demonstrated that any scheme of administration making its 
adjustments on a scientific basis would require to know these 
facts, and others like them. In addition, of course, the register 
will show in detail attendance, absence, tardiness, etc. In 
various degrees of completeness this form of register is now 
used in progressive school systems. 

b. The Continuous Card Record. — But in present practice 
no sufficient attempt to preserve a practicable history of the 
individual pupil is made. All the records over a series of 
years are in the registers ; but practically these are una- 
vailable for purposes of report or statistical inquiry. There 
is greatly needed some form of permanent record of the 
main facts regarding each individual pupil. From this point 
of view, the register may be regarded as a sort of day-book 
or journal ; but there should be in addition a means of 
establishing what may by analogy be called ledger accounts. 
Probably the most satisfactory form for this is a large card, 



552 Educational Administration 

five by eight, or eight by twelve inches, designed to receive 
the annual or semiannual records for at least ten years (the 
elementary school period, making allowance for two non- 
promotions) or for twenty semiannual reports. Certain facts 
{e.g. name, sex, name of parents, nationality of parents, date 
of birth of child, etc.) would be recorded but once, hence 
should have spaces at the top of the card ; whilst others {e.g. 
school attended, grade, home address, age, attendance, absence, 
tardiness, deportment, health condition, economic condition 
of family, summarized scholarship records, etc.) would have 
to be provided for in vertical columns, cutting across the 
horizontal spaces for each year or term. Such a card as 
this, once filled with name, date of birth, etc., should follow 
the pupil from class to class, or from school to school, never, 
however, being given to the pupil himself. Annually or 
semiannually the records from the register should be 
transferred {i.e. posted) to this card, which then becomes 
a complete history of the pupil. The back of the card 
might be utilized to record exceptional facts like truancy, 
illness, cause of leaving school, etc. 

It will be noted that the recording of certain facts is 
advised above, about which there is much dispute as to their 
value or practicability. For example, on such a card as 
that suggested it would be impossible to present a detailed 
record as to deportment or health condition, or, e.g., regarding 
the economic condition of the home. The problem involved 
is really one of classification. Is it practicable to have 
the teacher, who knows the children well, and who has the 
aid of the medical examiner, make a simple classification of 
the health condition of the children.-' If four grades of health 
were reported, say under the terms "excellent," "fair," 
"below average," and "very poor," would it be possible for 
the teacher, with such advice as she could obtain, to classify 
all of the children under the above heads.'' If it be agreed 
that such classification is useless or impracticable, then no 
space should be provided for it. If, on the other hand, 
it be decided that such classification, incomplete and imperfect 
though it should be, might be of great value in disclosing 



Educational Statistics 553 

relationships, as, for example, with poor scholarship, then 
some effort should be devoted to making it. The same 
statement applies to records of deportment, economic con- 
dition of family, and other matters, concerning which statis- 
tical ends would require uniform classification. But the 
writers believe that recent developments in statistical method 
and in social economy point the way to the possible evolution 
of simple and yet useful classifications in many of the branches 
of description given above, which can be made available 
for permanent records. 

The card here discussed is, of course, to be made and 
kept primarily by the teacher; others in contact with the 
children might, and probably would, make cards for their 
own work; the attendance ofificer for all children in the 
district, with a special card for truants; the physician and 
nurse for medical examinations; etc. The cards should 
be kept in cases in the oflfice of the principal, though the 
collection for any one class might go to the classroom for 
part of the time. 

c. Reports based on Card Records. — The continuous card 
record is designed primarily as a permanent history of the indi- 
vidual pupil, but its use for reports is also very great, in that it 
not only supplies individual data for classified reports, but 
it also provides the material for the investigation of relation- 
ships. A very simple process of checking off results from 
the cards would give the distributions of attendance and 
absence shown on p. 555. On a prepared sheet, combined 
distributions of age and grade could be made in a few 
minutes. But other relationships could be easily disclosed. 
For example, on a sheet ruled vertically for age distributions, 
and horizontally for two divisions for " promoted " and " non- 
promoted" (or subdivided as to boys and girls), it would 
be possible to show for any one grade the significant relation- 
ships between non-promotion and age. On other sheets 
it would be easy to assemble the data which would disclose 
any relationship that might exist between non-promotion 
and such facts as nationality, regularity of attendance, 
economic condition of family, or physical condition of pupil. 



554 Educational Administration 

It certainly cannot be denied that the discovery of relation- 
ships in these fields is an important matter for control and 
direction of school administration. But these relationships 
cannot be discovered from the data now at hand, since any 
two facts regarding the same pupil are not taken from 
the records in such a way as to preserve the connection. 
From some present reports, for example, we may find that 
twenty per cent of the pupils in a given group are "over- 
age," i.e. retarded ; and elsewhere we may learn that twenty 
per cent fail of promotion. But there is no means of ascer- 
taining whether any or many of the over-age pupils were 
among those failing of promotion — an important fact, cer- 
tainly, to know. But when two facts regarding a given pupil 
are simultaneously transferred to the proper form, the rela- 
tionship is made a matter of record; and an assemblage of 
facts of relationship is the basis of statistical inquiry into 
cause and effect. 

Emphasis should be given to the point that under the 
method of record and report here indicated the work of 
the teacher should be diminished rather than increased. By 
the provision of carefully prepared blanks so that names and 
other facts may be written but once, and so that matters of 
reporting can be largely accomplished by means of check 
marks, the teacher should be spared a large amount of writ- 
ing. It is not assumed that all of the inquiries above indi- 
cated should be made every year ; in fact, with the keeping 
of adequate records through the years it would be desirable 
from the administrative point of view to make these investi- 
gations only occasionally as tests of the system of adminis- 
tration. When it was desired to discover from the records 
particular relationships, as, for example, age and grade in the 
system, either the teacher could transcribe the necessary data 
into reports, or this could be done by a clerk ; but there 
should be no inherent reason why this particular relationship 
should be investigated oftener than once in five years. Simi- 
larly with the relationships undoubtedly existing between 
" dropping out " or school " mortality," and age, failure of 
promotion, health, irregular attendance, nationality, economic 



Educational Statistics 



555 



condition of the family, etc. These might be made the 
object of special inquiry once in five or ten years, provided 
the data for one inquiry were sufficient to establish the fact of 
a certain relationship or absence of such relationship. 

Table XII 

ILLUSTRATIVE OF POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN 
AGE AND SCHOLARSHIP IN A GIVEN GRADE 

(Numbers arbitrary) 

Grade 5. Age records compiled Dec. 20, before promotion. 



Scholarship Average 


83 and 

less 
than 9^ 


95 to 

10^ 


IO5 to 

11^ 


II5 to 

12^ 


\i\ to 

135 


135 to 
145 




Excellent 


s 

5% 


20 

20% 


40 

4o\ 


20 

20% 


10 

10% 


5 


100 

100% 


Good 


10 


50 


120 

30% 


150 

37% 


50 

-12 lo 


20 
5% 


400 
100% 


Fair 


5 


50 


80 

26% 


70 

23% 


80 

26% 


25 

8% 


310 


Poor, not promoted . . 


I 

^7o 


5 

^0% 


10 

20\ 


15 

30% 


21 

22O/, 


8 

^6% 


50 
100% 


Totals 


21 

^7o 


125 


250 

^9% 


255 
30% 


/5% 


58 
6% 


860 



Examples. — If the following facts appear on the cards, it 
would be possible to utilize them to answer questions of ad- 
ministration : age, grade, nationality of father, nationality of 
mother, economic condition of family, attendance, deport- 
ment, scholarship, promotion, health, distance lived from 
school, etc. The massing of this data by statistical methods 
would tend to show whether there were relationships be- 
tween : {a) grade and retardation ; (<^) retardation and per- 
sistency of attendance ; {c) retardation and health ; {d) eco- 
nomic condition of home, and scholarship ; {e) nationality and 
scholarship ; {f) nationality of parents and health condition 
of pupil ; {g) nationality of parents and scholarship ; {h) per- 



556 Educational Administration 

sistency of attendance and scholarship ; (?) attendance and 
distance lived away from school ; (7') deportment and schol- 
arship, or health, or nationality, or economic condition ; {k) 
age and deportment or scholarship, or regularity of attend- 
ance ; (/) premature " dropping out " and age, grade, health, 
economic condition, promotion, scholarship, etc. With in- 
crease in accurate data preserved, and development of work- 
able schemes of classifications of facts, more and more close 
analyses could be made of the vital relationships involved in 
educational practice. 

The table on page 555 shows how such material could 
be organized for purposes of interpretation. 

Notice that a partial relationship between degree of re- 
tardation and scholarship is shown by the assumed figures. 

Publication of Reports on school population and school 
work should have as its primary end publicity, by which is 
meant the giving of such information as will enable the in- 
terested citizen of average intelligence to understand the im- 
portant features of the school system, and particularly to 
obtain accurate information with regard to the need and re- 
sults of new or advocated policies. Incidentally, the informa- 
tion contained in reports should be such as will aid the 
student of education and the investigator in the fields of 
social economy. The aim of publicity will require : {a) sta- 
tistical presentations, in considerable detail and with abun- 
dant opportunity for easy comparison of various sets of facts 
with each other, including tables showing important relation- 
ships; {b) such interpretations of these facts by means of 
graphical presentations and discussion as will enable the 
reader readily to arrive at conclusions, which may be verified 
by careful examination of the data themselves ; and {c) the 
publication annually, not of all varieties of statistical infor- 
mation, but rather the detailed study of some one field for 
each year ; this being carried on so that in five to ten years 
all phases of the school system capable of statistical presen- 
tation may be covered. Each annual report should present 
a classified reference list of statistical tables and discussions 
that have appeared in previous published reports, and in pre- 



Educational Statistics 557 

senting a subject for exhibition statistically should summarize 
the statistics of the time intervening since the last report on 
this subject was treated. Practically, in present reports much 
valuable effort is wasted in presenting types of tables that 
could as well appear once in five years, provided the data for 
intervening years are all summarized in such quinquennial re- 
ports. No objection can be had to the school report pub- 
lished annually ; this should be required, even in small 
communities ; but it should not be thought desirable to try 
to present annually all the main facts of the school. Better 
that a given report should indicate in its references that two 
or three years previously certain topics had been treated 
exhaustively, and refer investigators to those reports ; and a 
promise should also appear of full reports again at some 
date in the future. 

Answers to questions like the following should be made 
the basis of requests for increased facilities : (a) How many 
children of school age (census classification) are there in the 
community in comparison with the number in attendance at 
schools, and these compared with the number of sittings 
offered by the schools, each set of facts classified as far as 
practicable by schools or districts and by age of pupils? 
{b) Of the children attending school or at least enrolled, 
how many are making only a nominal attendance, i.e. are 
so irregular or so far behind grade as to make their class 
work almost valueless, and how many, owing to the disci- 
plinary difficulties they present, are a serious handicap to 
the teacher of large classes ? {c) What are the educational 
results in the case of boys of ten to fourteen who are disposed to 
be truants when the attendance department forces them into 
the regular classroom ? etc. 

The success of public education in a democratic com- 
munity rests on popular appreciation and support ; these 
can be procured, under the complex conditions of modern 
social activities, only by studying the art and science of 
presenting the maximum of right information with a mini- 
mum of effort. Advertising, in the best sense of that word, 
i.e. publicity, has its social usefulness. 



558 Educational Administration 



REFERENCES 

Allen, W. H. Efficient Democracy. New York, 1907. — Allen, W.H. 
Demand for better School Reports, Rev. of Rev. 33: 575. — Allen, W. H. 
School Policy via School Facts, Sch. Rev. 33 : 474. — Cloyd, D. E. 
Economics of City School Administration, Ed. 25 : 193. — Greenwood, J. 
M. Report on High School Statistics, Proc N. E. A. 1903 : 340. — Nash, 
L. P. How to meet the People, Proc. N. E. A. 1902 : 237. — Prince, J. T. 
School Administration. (Ch. XII.) Syracuse, 1906. — Snedden, D., and 
Allen, W. H. School Reports and School Efficiency. New York, 1908. 
— Thorndike. Mental and Social Measurements. New York, 1904. — 
Thorndike. The Quantitative Study of Education, Forum, 36 : 448. — 
Rep. of Com. of Ed. 1903:1137 (Exhibit of the U.S. Bureau of Ed- 
ucation at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition). — Rep. of Com. of Ed. 
1898:1477. (Report on School Statistics by Com. of Dept. of Super- 
intendence of the N. E. A.) — Rep. of Com. of Ed. 1902:2209. (Report 
on School Statistics by Committee of N. E. A.) 



CHAPTER XXXI 

The Widening Sphere of Public Education 

In our previous discussion it has been seen how extensive 
and many-sided is the field of educational administration. 
The most important phases of the subject have been treated 
as fully as the proper limits of this volume would permit. 
Little has been said, however, about the attitude of modern so- 
ciety toward education or the rapid social changes which are 
now taking place and which are not only suggesting new fields 
for educational effort, but are making prophecy of still larger 
undertakings for the future. 

Nature of Social Progress. — This tendency toward a wid- 
ening and enlargement of the educational field is something 
which school ofiEicers cannot overlook or ignore. The new 
demands are not usually the whims of individual agitators 
who have nothing to do but seek out the weak places in 
our social equipment, but they are due rather to the progres- 
sive working of those laws which govern social progress. 
It is evident that there is the education of society as well as 
the education of the individual. While the social group is 
made up of individuals and receives its accretions of intelli- 
gence, enterprise, and thrift from individual acquisition and 
accomplishment, yet the same group has means of develop- 
ing itself and of growing in self-consciousness and directive 
intelligence which are analogous to the same processes in 
the life of the individual. While the teachings of Herbert 
Spencer upon the analogies existing between social life and 
growth and those of an organism have been much criticised, 
the main contention which he made is generally accepted, 
and he may properly be credited with having made a con- 
tribution to education, for the manner in which the social 
group or community develops in its attitudes, its apprecia- 
tions, and its desires is of supreme importance to those who 

559 



560 Educational Administration 

are administering great educational interests. It is evident 
that there are two ways in which social progress is attained : — 

Social Change by Evolution. — First, by means of natural 
influences or through a process of evolution. This natural 
or genetic progress is often so slow as to be hardly appre- 
ciated. One must go back for years or perhaps decades to 
see what changes affecting the life, conduct, and sentiments 
of a people have been accomplished. The influences that 
operate are many and often minute, but progress, while 
slow, is very sure, for each community or neighborhood 
profits by the advances made by other communities or neigh- 
borhoods upon which it reacts. The factors that cause these 
changes, whether physical or social, are constant in their 
operation. The tendency of a people in a village or town 
to overcome the deleterious influences of unfavorable climate, 
soil, or location, is educative in that it calls forth a certain 
amount of thought and energy directed to a definite purpose. 
In the same way it is natural for one community to emulate 
another, and even to endeavor to excel in the perfection of 
its public and social life. This evolutionary process, steady 
and faithful in its influence, leads to higher and higher con- 
ceptions of what human life in its social aspects should be, 
and stimulates to new endeavor. As progress goes on, the 
ideal seems to recede so that the end is never reached. 

The Method of Education. — Second: There is the evolution 
which is pushed forward by more artificial methods. This is 
really analogous to what is called education. Viewed in this 
aspect, society does not wait for the slower processes of 
nature, but deliberately sets itself to work to improve certain 
phases of its life. Just as the individual resolves upon self- 
improvement and upon the mastery of his environment, so 
the community sets itself to work in numberless ways to im- 
prove the conditions under which it lives, to increase its intel- 
ligence, to train its members for more efficient vocational life, 
to secure to all the people the blessings of health, enjoyment, 
and culture. 

Democracy favors Progress. — It is obvious that in a de- 
mocracy like the United States, both the natural and edu- 



The Widening Sphere of Public Education 561 

cational forces of evolution have a freer play, and thus 
accomplish more rapid changes in society than are possible 
where the machinery of education is largely controlled by one 
or a few persons, and where the people have only a limited 
voice in controlling their social life. Education is thus seen 
to be closely allied to social economy, the aim of which is to 
apply such methods of production as will increase human 
wealth, to promote tolerance and human sympathy, and thus 
arouse a sense of social soHdarity, to increase intelligence, 
both for the pleasure to be derived and for a better control 
of material and social conditions. Social economy also seeks 
the conservation of childhood and such control of the influ- 
ences which affect human reproduction as will tend to enhst 
consciously the forces of heredity and biological selection 
in the advancement of the race. As education is the work of 
self-conscious society toward general improvement by utiliz- 
ing all available knowledge and ideas, it is compelled to widen 
its field of operation according as new methods and ways of 
human improvement are discovered. While primarily edu- 
cation has ever been concerned with children and youth, it 
tends more and more at the present time to consider the 
needs and interests of adults, and, in fact, to take under its 
fostering care society as a whole. In undertaking to enumer- 
ate some of the newer phases of human uplift which have 
been undertaken by social economy and education, we may 
well keep in mind the principles stated governing the two 
great methods of social progress. We cannot always see 
whether this or that new feature is a result of natural growth 
or of a purposeful initiative on the part of some person or 
group of persons. The two forces usually work together, and 
often when some educational proposition is made as though 
it were a new discovery or a prophecy, it will be found upon 
examination that the fulness of time has arrived for that 
particular thing and that the mills of the gods have been 
quietly grinding it out. 

The Duty of the School System. — Thus it appears that edu- 
cational officials are ever facing the possibility of new dis- 
coveries, new demands, and new requirements, which they are 
20 



562 EclMcational Administration 

bound to treat with care and consideration. They cannot 
merely provide what is necessary to-day, but must think of to- 
morrow and the next day, and even the next year. They 
must not turn a deaf ear to those prophets of change and 
reform whose declarations point to new adjustments and still 
wider circles of school endeavor. The school superintendent 
may comfort himself with the assurance that the social econo- 
mist is really blazing the way for his own work, and that, 
according to the laws of social progress, many influences are 
working day and night toward human betterment and social 
advance. The complaint that the schools are asked to assume 
a too parental attitude, and to enter upon undertakings which 
belong to the home, is not valid. The real question is, — 
Can the schools perform the desired service for the community 
better than any other agency and at the same time not go 
outside of the true province of education } 

With these words of preface let us proceed to consider 
some of the activities which are being undertaken by boards 
of education, so that we may get a better idea of what the 
immediate future of the schools is to be. 

The Schools and Public Health. — If we go back a few 
years to the days of close, unventilated schoolrooms, worn- 
out furnaces emitting coal gas, dusty floors, ceilings covered 
with grime and dirt, and uncivilized and wretched appoint- 
ments for sanitation, and compare that situation so prevalent 
forty years ago, with what may be seen to-day in more 
progressive communities we find a tremendous advance. 
No doubt, some school boards and guardians of the public 
treasury are felicitating themselves that in these particulars 
the schools have reached the limit of expansion and increased 
expenditure and may feel no further anxiety, but in reality 
only a beginning has been made. There are relatively few 
schools in the United States where the air is changed with 
sufficient frequency to prevent the danger of impaired health, 
especially where the children have any tendency either to 
receive or to communicate the germs of disease. The same 
thing is probably true in respect to cleanliness as applied to 
the removal of dust and the disinfection of rooms because of 



The Widening Sphere of Public Education 563 

the presence of a contagious disease. Besides/ the relation 
which these matters bear to the home Hf e cannot be overlooked. 

Necessity for Medical Care. — The examination of school 
children for the determination of defects of eyes, ears, and 
throat has only just begun, and it is only with the greatest 
difficulty that one can find authoritative records of the results 
of such examination. It has come to be well understood that 
much of the backwardness and indisposition on the part of 
pupils in respect to attention, application, and conduct is 
attributable to physical deficiency or disease, but in com- 
paratively few school systems have definite steps been taken 
to segregate and provide special treatment for those unfor- 
tunate cases. 

Physical Education Required. — Again, physical training in 
the form of gymnastics and play has long commended itself 
to educators, and a few of the newer schoolhouses are 
equipped with a gymnasium and apparatus, or possibly with 
a playground, which for a good part of the year is still 
better. But the corrective and therapeutic aspects of phys- 
ical education have received comparatively little attention 
except by experts. Gymnastics are often given in school- 
rooms where the air is vitiated or too warm, and where the 
arrangement of furniture and so forth is such that the freer 
and more valuable features of exercise are impossible. 

Bathing in School. — There is similar backwardness in re- 
spect to provision for bathing in the schools. However 
antagonistic the thrifty tax-payer is toward providing such 
appointments of civilized life in the schools, there are good 
arguments for doing so, and it may be predicted that the 
schools will gradually be equipped in this direction. The 
movement for tenement house reform and better homes 
and the efforts made through charitable organizations and 
churches to instruct people in the necessity of cleanliness and 
other things incidental to healthful hfe, will tend to mitigate 
the urgency of this demand. But it will soon be decided 
that children who enter the school in uncleanly condition 
must first receive prompt attention. 

The Prevention of Disease. — This leads to the final and 



564 Educational Administration 

most pressing necessity now felt by thoughtful educators, 
and that is provision for adequate medical examination and 
inspection, supplemented by the service of competent nurses, 
so that in regard to the matters mentioned above and many 
other related points, there may be efficient and adequate 
provision. 

No more startling and suggestive ^ statement has been made 
than that of Dr. John H. Lowman of Cleveland, touching 
tuberculosis and the schools. Concerning the oft-repeated 
statement that the mortality of the young has increased, 
especially during school age, he says: — 

" This apparently new fact may not be due to an increase of the disease, 
but to a discovery. The technique of diagnosis lias improved, the mind 
of man is more alert to the whole question, ideas of the pathology of the 
disease, especially as far as the lymphatic system is concerned, have 
changed, and consequently the disease is detected with much greater pre- 
cision. All this, true though it may be, does, nevertheless, not invalidate 
entirely the position that the danger of contracting tuberculosis increases 
with the age of the child and constitutes a peculiar and extraordinary men- 
ace during the school age." 

Treatment of Tuberculosis. — Attention is called to the un- 
favorable condition of schoolrooms and the strain which 
children undergo in being transplanted from the fresh air, 
even of the city, to poorly ventilated schools. In one school 
district in Cleveland 6^ cases of tuberculosis were found in 
572 families. In the 57 houses where these families lived, there 
were found 151 children. From the present knowledge of 
the infectious character of the disease, this fact points to a 
condition which has only recently been appreciated. The 
only logical solution of the difficulty is the segregation in rooms 
by themselves of all infected children. This is only an ex- 
tension of the idea of special classes for those who for 
physical or moral reasons cannot safely be permitted to as- 
sociate with others. The idea of special tuberculosis classes 
in our city schools, while anything but agreeable, cannot be 
easily dismissed, and great care would have to be taken in re- 
gard to earlier or later admission and dismissal and frequent 

^ Dr. John H. Lowman, " Tuberculosis and the Schools," Charities and the 
Contmons XVIII : 657. 



The Widening Sphere of Public Education 565 

disinfection of rooms, in order to make it proper to have such 
classes in session under the same roof with healthy children. 
Sanatorium Schools. — Then follows that additional provision 
which has already been worked out in Milan ; namely, sanato- 
rium classes in the suburbs with buildings specially constructed 
so that pupils may live much in the open air, with generous 
provision for forest schools, school gardens, and other forms 
of out-of-door education. This new and pressing duty of 
school boards suggests a widening of the function of the pubhc 
school that can hardly be estimated. Let us hope that those 
who believe that tuberculosis may in a reasonable time be 
eradicated, have ground for their faith, for if they have, 
schools may expect, some time in the future, to be relieved of 
this burden. The matter is of such urgency that it seems 
proper to add to what has been said a summary which Dr. 
Lowman has made of the proper steps to be taken to control 
tuberculosis and overcome the difficulties which it presents : — 

1. To discover through the records of the municipality and public 
institutions the children who are infected and those who live in infected 
houses. 

2. To examine and classify the individuals thus found and place the 
contagious cases in sanatoria and the others in separate schools. 

3. To develop the hygienic surroundings of these separate schools to 
the highest pitch of excellence. 

4. To specialize these children even during the vacations by referring 
them to the special consideration of outing societies. 

5. To provide physicians who will, at stated intervals, examine the 
children and report to the supervisors the conditions found. 

6. To use the utmost precautions for the protection of the teachers. 

7. To introduce systematic courses on hygiene and tuberculosis into the 
curriculum of the schools. 

8. To provide sanatoria for children. 

The difficulties to be overcome are : — 

1. The examination of thousands of children in order to detect and 
classify those affected with tuberculosis. 

2. Provision for the contagious cases in sanatoria for children. 

3. Teachers for the classes of children with latent non-contagious 
tuberculosis. 

4. Vigilant medical supervision of the tuberculosis classes. 

The Feeding of Children. — This broad consideration of the 



566 Educational Administration 

importance of the physical side in education and in life 
brings us face to face with another condition which must be 
treated here in order to make our study complete ; that is, the 
unnourished condition in which many children come to school, 
owing to poverty or neglect in the home. It requires no 
demonstration to show that young children who are sent to 
school without a breakfast are unfit to do good mental work 
during the morning, and if they receive only a scanty luncheon, 
are in not much better condition in the afternoon. When 
this state of things continues day by day, children who should 
be rugged, healthy, and full of joy are discouraged, anaemic, 
and are in such a condition that they are the easy prey for any 
form of disease which may happen to lie in their path. 
Childhood is thwarted, health is undermined, intellectual 
growth is prevented, the benefits of the school are nullified, 
and there are thrown back upon society a class of people who 
both physically, intellectually, and morally become driftwood 
and tend to clog the wheels of social uplift. The pressing 
importance of this matter has long been understood in Europe, 
and in practically all the large cities some means have been 
provided to alleviate these evils. Mr. John Spargo ^ not long 
since made a careful study of this matter, and has published 
its results. 

Practice in Europe. — Thirty years ago a proposal to feed 
hungry children in the public schools was derided in England. 
To-day it is supported by political and social leaders. The 
Royal Commission and other local committees found serious 
conditions in Birmingham, Glasgow, Dundee, and Aberdeen, 
In London it is estimated that over 100,000 children are regu- 
larly underfed. Charitable organizations are doing much, and 
the Liberal Government is committed to some favorable action. 
In Berlin and several other German cities, children who are 
able, pay a small fee, while others are fed free of charge. 
The same plan is followed in several of the cities of Italy. 
In several cities of Norway a midday meal is provided by 
taxation for those children who desire it, thus preventing the 
classification of any as paupers. The writer saw some years 

^ Spargo, John, Charities and the Commons, May, 1906. 



The Widenhtg Sphere of Public Education 567 

ago in Gothenberg, Sweden, very ample provision for a mid- 
day meal, the work of preparing which was performed largely 
by the older girls in the school. In Belgium and Switzerland, 
the plan of feeding unnourished children is in operation, but 
is made a benevolence only for those unable to pay. 

In France, since the time of the second republic, consider- 
able attention has been given to providing the necessities of 
life for children. Public opinion was educated through vari- 
ous benevolent bodies until, in 1882, a law was passed com- 
pelHng the establishment of school funds, the application of 
which was left to the discretion of the authorities. These 
special school funds are applied to the following purposes : 
first, free meals, or meals provided at cost ; second, provision 
of shoes and clothing where necessary; third, free medical 
attendance ; fourth, sending weak, debilitated, and sick chil- 
dren to the seaside or the country. In Paris the preparation 
of meals has been so systematized that the entire cost of a 
bowl of soup, plate of meat, two kinds of vegetables, and 
bread is fifteen centimes or three cents. Meal tickets are 
issued, but children are not required to pay for them unless 
the parents are known to be able to do so. 

Conditions in the United States. — With these European 
examples, it is not strange that the matter of feeding children 
has received attention in the poorer sections of some of our 
American cities. At an examination made in New York of 
more than 12,000 children, it was found that 7 per cent had 
come to school without breakfast ; 15 per cent had only bread 
with tea or coffee. Another investigation made in the pub- 
lic schools revealed the fact that 14 per cent had come to 
school without food, and that 82 per cent were underfed. In 
examinations made in Buffalo, Philadelphia, and Chicago, the 
results were equally startling. Mr. Spargo summarizes this 
matter as follows : — 

" It has been shown over and over again that the children of the poor 
are behind better favored children in physical development in every way, 
often as much as two or three years. They are shorter in stature, lighter 
in weight, narrower of chest, and feebler of grip. Moreover, the evils do 
not end with school life ; for the constitution is so enfeebled that in after 



568 Educational Administration 

years the results are extremely severe. The victims of poverty in child- 
hood fall an easy prey to disease ; they are soon exhausted and become un- 
fitted early in life for the v^^ork of the world. Much of our pauperism and 
crime may be traced baclc to this evil of underfeeding in childhood." 

It is unthinkable that in a land where the welfare of the 
nation is wrapped up in the fullest development of its people, 
large numbers of children will be permitted to suffer and 
perish from the lack of private and public beneficence. The 
richest nation on earth cannot afford to permit such human 
sacrifice. 

Public Playgrounds. — A more agreeable topic is the im- 
provement of public health through the multiplication of play- 
grounds in our large cities. The organization of the Play- 
ground Association of America, with a staff of competent 
officers and with facilities for propaganda, is worthy of notice. 
Such an association will be able to initiate several local as- 
sociations, so that its influence will be widespread and bene- 
ficial. At present, however, and for a long time to come, 
boards of education may justly be expected to deal with this 
question, and superintendents of schools cannot shirk the re- 
sponsibility, for they are expected to be alive to this as to all 
other educational needs of our American communities. Play, 
recreation, and rest in the open air, where nature has a chance 
to assert herself, are essential factors in the life of young or 
old. School officers cannot afford to wait for municipal com- 
missions or civic organizations to take the lead. The whole 
subject of athletics, games, play, and recreation must be in- 
cluded in a modern educational scheme, and here, particularly, 
school boards should lead and not follow. 

Work of the National Association. — The National Associa- 
tion to which reference has been made will undertake to 
induce large cities to inventory all sites available for play- 
grounds, including waste places, that may be filled in, aban- 
doned cemeteries, and vacant squares. The attempt will also 
be made to prepare specifications and estimates for a standard 
equipment for playgrounds suitable for the home, the school, 
and the municipality. The movement is also on foot to secure 
legislation in as many states as possible, which shall favor this 



The Widening Sphere of Public Education 569 

form of education. The organization of the library and the 
museum has been begun, where will be collected pictures, 
models, and records of all playground work and play activities 
in various parts of the country. 

Movement in Washington. — Mr. Henry S. Curtis, Secretary 
of the National Association, has made a careful study of the 
city of Washington to ascertain what sites are properly avail- 
able for playgrounds. His investigations included four kinds 
of locations : first, public places belonging to the District of 
Columbia ; second, reclaimable areas consisting of ponds or 
marshes to be filled in ; third, abandoned cemeteries ; fourth, 
vacant squares which are purchasable. The time spent in 
making the study was two weeks, and the results were quite 
remarkable along the lines indicated above. Mr. Curtis es- 
timates that between 1^300,000 and ^400,000 worth of sites 
may become permanent playgrounds as a result of the study.^ 

Commission in Cleveland. — The city of Cleveland has set a 
good example, where the Mayor has appointed a Playground 
Commission. Its purpose is to make a careful study of the 
possibilities within the city limits, and to consider how the 
needs of various classes of children and adults may be met by 
different types of playgrounds. There is a prospect for ade- 
quate provision through the work of this Commission of 
school playgrounds, neighborhood play centres and recreation 
centres. 

The School and the City. — Following the example set by 
Colonel Waring some years ago in New York, the aid of school 
children has sometimes been enlisted in the matter of keeping 
the streets, yards, and alleys clean and free from rubbish and 
other unsightly material. One of the most effective instances 
of this kind of work is reported by Mr. Jacob Riis as having 
taken place in Helena, Montana. In that city the Superin- 
tendent, Mr. Condon, inaugurated a civic Easter, when every 
school child, teacher, and janitor should plant some tree, shrub, 
vine, flower, or seed as a step toward a more beautiful city. 
With this was coupled the idea of making the whole city as 

^ " Washington finding Playgrounds," by Henry S. Curtis, in Charities and 
the Commons, March, 1908. 



570 Educational Administration 

clean and attractive as possible. One item of this work con- 
sisted in collecting and sending to the smelter sixteen and one- 
half tons of flattened tin cans, for which novel consignment 
i^ioo was received and expended for gymnastic apparatus. 
Such an effort as this can never be made successful unless 
those at the head of the school system go into it heart and 
soul and feel the ethical value of such civic cooperation. If 
done in a perfunctory way or if half done, the results will be 
anything but satisfactory. 

Education for the Home. — Closely allied to the health prob- 
lem as seen in the schools is that kind of training which is in- 
tended to improve the home life in respect to food, clothing, 
economy, beauty, and good taste. Domestic science is now 
believed to have a legitimate place in the curriculum. No 
such thing was thought of twenty years ago, and in twenty 
years to come, without doubt, the school which does not pro- 
vide this branch will be counted as out of date. 

The Scope of Domestic Science. — What a wide field is cov- 
ered by the term "domestic science" is only to be appreciated 
by examining the courses given by such institutions as the 
Pratt Institute and the Teachers College. Here we see that 
cooking is only a small item in the list ; housework, with its 
processes of cleaning, the care of rooms, use of materials and 
labor-saving apparatus, the application of varnishes and paints 
and their care, the principles and processes of laundry work 
and the apparatus which goes with them are included; then we 
find courses dealing with the preparation of food materials 
based upon the knowledge of their composition and the chem- 
ical changes effected by heat and moisture ; the adaptation of 
established recipes, domestic and foreign, to new-process food 
materials ; the study of the psychological and physiological 
effect of pleasing flavors, with questions affecting labor and 
expense, cost of food and marketing ; then there are courses 
covering the study of all the food elements, their uses and 
values ; the structure and use of various kinds of tableware 
and the effect of alkalis and organic acids. 

Of equally practical value is the study of the manifold 
problems entering into the construction of a home, its site, 



The VVidenhig Sphere of Public Education 571 

distribution of space and various uses : materials used in 
preserving and decorating ; appliances for heating, ventilat- 
ing, refrigerating, and lighting; disposal of waste by private 
and public systems ; electrical contrivances ; repairs of all 
kinds ; selection and use of antiseptics for cleansing pur- 
poses; rents, taxation, etc. — these and many others are pro- 
vided for those who are being trained as teachers in the public 
schools of the country. The object in quoting from these 
curricula is to suggest the wide horizon of opportunity and 
necessity for improving the health and economic conditions 
in the home life, and thus elevating the standard of comfort 
and happiness. 

Domestic Art. — Almost equally extensive and illuminat- 
ing are the courses now given in similar institutions where 
teachers are prepared for work in domestic art. Eighteen 
separate courses are provided in the Teachers College, which 
show great differentiation in the whole field of needlework, 
house equipment, and decoration, the selection and use of tex- 
tiles in dress and furniture, having in view health, appropri- 
ateness, and beauty ; the practical study of millinery, and 
the methods employed. Moreover, in connection with these 
courses, much attention is given to the historic development 
of household art, the methods and results in other countries, 
and the correlation of the subject with other courses in an- 
thropology, sociology, and economics. 

Economy and Good Taste. — School systems are beginning 
to feel responsible for the home life in respect to intelligent 
expenditure of earnings and the health of families, as deter- 
mined by proper food, clothing, cleanliness, and ventilation, 
and are inclined to go one step further and try to instill 
ideals of good taste and beauty in the adornments of the 
home and in personal dress. In this field the departments 
of domestic science and art naturally combine with those of 
art and manual training, so that a very practical influence is 
brought to bear upon everything affecting the appearance 
of the home in regard to furniture, coverings for floors and 
walls, the use of ornaments and pictures, and in dress. 

New Measures of School Efficiency. — It is safe to predict 



572 Educational Administration 

that the time is coming when the effect of a school upon a 
neighborhood will be estimated not merely by the results of 
examinations in the school, or the personal appearance of 
the children, but rather by the status of the homes and the 
extent to which the schools have accomplished the ends enu- 
merated above. In a great city like New York, where the 
population is continually shifting on account of the flood of 
immigrants which enters the port and gradually is distributed 
to other parts of the country, it could hardly be expected 
that the desired results could be accompHshed ; but in more 
normal and stable communities it is not too much to expect 
that in the near future the schools will be able to point to 
results of their work as seen in well-ordered, thrifty, tasteful 
homes, where health, economy, and courtesy are visible. A 
moment's reflection will show how sensible and valuable edu- 
cational work may become by assuming such functions and 
by directing the work of the schools, not merely to scholastic 
achievements, but to the improvement of personality and the 
uplift of human life throughout the community. Here, again, 
the schools are following the lead of the social economist who 
is working for better homes, better sanitation, purer milk, 
pure foods, better conditions for the distribution of meats 
and other food products, open-air spaces, recreation centres, 
fresh-air homes for children, the segregation of those threat- 
ened with contagious diseases, cleaner streets, the overthrow 
of schools of vice of every sort, the restriction of the liquor 
trafBc, the elimination of dishonesty from the police force, — ■ 
in short, all those things which make human life, both in its 
public and private relations, more decent and respectable. 

The Schools and the Public Library. — In this field, also, we 
find a rapid movement toward a new order of things, the sig- 
nificance of which can hardly be estimated by a lay mind. 
Probably no educational movement of modern times has pro- 
gressed more rapidly, or has become weighted with more 
benefits to the people, thinking of their intellectual and 
moral welfare, than the development of great library sys- 
tems, whose purpose it is to bring books to the people, or, 
in other words, to make it as easy as possible for all to have 



The Widening Sphere of Public Education 573 

the best reading. A few names could be mentioned of men 
and women, most of them still living, who, in our great cities, 
have developed library science in its popular phases, to a 
point of marvellous efficiency and adaptation. 

Leadership of New York State. — Perhaps the work of the 
State Library of New York, under the inspired leadership of 
Dr. Melville Dewey, when viewed from the point of view of 
popular influence, has set the pace for the whole country. 
From small beginnings, when there were comparatively few 
public libraries in the state, there has been a rapid increase 
of local libraries. In one of the reports of the State Depart- 
ment, the different undertakings of the library department are 
summarized as follows : — 

1. Establishment of free libraries where none exist. 

2. Encouragement and aid of small libraries already in existence. 

3. Conversion of subscription libraries into free libraries. 

4. Introduction of state travelling libraries, especially in farming dis- 
tricts and in study clubs. 

5. Introduction of travelling pictures in schools, libraries, and study 
clubs. 

6. Raising the standard of books in our Sunday-school and public 
school libraries. 

7. Sale of a better class of books at railway stations and on trains. 
It has even been suggested that free libraries, such as are now found on the 
great limited expresses, should be available on all trains. 

8. Cooperation with the state library in preparing reading lists on 
special subjects and general lists for special classes. 

Training for Library Work. — A report prepared by Miss 
Elizabeth G. Baldwin, Librarian of Teachers College, for the 
N.E.A. on " Instruction in Library Administration in Normal 
Schools," is full of prophetic suggestions touching the close re- 
lation which is sure to exist between libraries and schools in the 
near future. If the normal schools of the country promptly 
take up the work of training school librarians to act as inter- 
mediaries and experts in every branch of reading for the 
young, we may expect to see a change which will be little 
short of a revolution. It is obvious that where public libraries 
do not exist, each large school should have a library of its 
own, and this suggests that all teachers trained in our normal 
schools should have some knowledge of library work and 



574 Educational Admijiistration 

children's literature. One room should be set apart for the 
school library where should be collected the most desirable 
reference books, and in addition such carefully selected works 
as are adapted to different grades of pupils. There should 
also be the best magazines, collections of pictures and photo- 
graphs, and other illustrative material. But where public 
libraries exist under proper management which should usually 
be separate from that of the schools, there is no need of the 
so-called "school library." 

Classroom Libraries. — Work in the schools may best be 
managed from the pubhc library as a centre. One or more 
school librarians will study the conditions in the schools and 
see how the needs may best be met. They will help to or- 
ganize " classroom libraries," which should consist of small 
collections of books suited to supplement the work in the 
various subjects, and should be as far as possible of the 
highest order, well illustrated, and interesting. For instance, 
the schoolroom library in a higher grammar grade should 
not merely contain additional text-books in American history, 
which are usually as dry as dust and made up of second-hand 
material compiled for commercial purposes, but should have 
some of the best historical fiction, poetry, oratory, and photo- 
graphs, thus giving color and atmosphere, which make his- 
tory study interesting. 

Circulating Libraries. — In New York City, each of the thirty- 
eight branch libraries now in operation has a school librarian 
and much is done not only in classroom work mentioned 
above but in preparing and sending out to the schools circu- 
lating libraries for special purposes. Much is being done 
also to make teachers acquainted with what the library con- 
tains, and to bring quickly and freely to their use any books 
which will aid them in teaching or in preparing for the higher 
examinations which so many are desirous of taking in order 
to gain professional advancement. It is most gratifying to see 
how the New York Public Library has grasped the problem 
of aiding both youth and adults along the lines of their voca- 
tion by issuing bulletins announcing that books for mechanics, 
machinists, electricians, housesmiths, and automobile builders 



The Widening Sphere of Public Education 575 

may be obtained at any of the branch libraries, and that a 
complete catalogue of these works may be consulted. 

New Phases of Library Work. — Among other special under- 
takings are the provisions made for teachers who are pursuing 
special studies. Cards are issued upon which they may bor- 
row more than the usual number of books, and retain them 
for a period greater than the usual length of time. There is 
distributed each month to every teacher in the city a printed 
document containing various information concerning the 
location and facilities of the libraries, and a list of all books 
added during the month, classified under appropriate heads. 
There is issued from time to time a bulletin containing titles 
of new books bearing upon education and teaching. A cir- 
cular has been issued notifying schools, clubs, library societies, 
and classes that a travelling library will, upon request, be fur- 
nished, containing from ten to one thousand volumes, as may 
seem desirable. Special provision is made also for teachers 
who contemplate work in the summer schools. They only 
need to file at the nearest branch library a list of the books 
which they require. The books and magazines for the blind, 
as well as music published in embossed type, are sent by 
mail free upon request to the nearest branch post-office. The 
library also furnishes a teacher without charge for blind resi- 
dents. Music of all kinds is loaned from the branch Hbraries 
as well as books on the theory of music. One of the most 
useful features is a series of cards, one for every grade in the 
grammar schools, announcing the special topics chosen from 
the curriculum of that grade, for which collections of books 
have been specially prepared for the use of teachers or pupils. 
The same card gives information upon collections at the 
American Museum of Natural History and the Van Cortlandt 
manor house, which are useful in the study of the same topics. 

Library Work for Children. — Many of the great pub- 
lic libraries of to-day are thronged with children out of 
school hours and unusual pains are taken to help them 
to become acquainted with the best books. Some libraries 
have separate rooms for, respectively, young children, those 
of grammar school age, and adults, including high school 



576 Educational Administration 

or college students. Such an arrangement has been for 
several years in vogue in Brookline, Massachusetts, where 
a school librarian was employed more than ten years ago 
and worked under the joint management of the library 
board and the school committee in securing a close coordina- 
tion between the library and the school. Did space permit 
it would be worth while to record how rapidly the ideas qrigi- 
nated by Mr. Dewey have been disseminated throughout the 
country so that travelling libraries, study clubs, and children's 
museums are to be found here and there as germinal influences 
which are likely to have a large place in the educational sys- 
tem of the near future. The bibliography of this subject is 
now large and discriminating. Many states have made appro- 
priations with a special view to make libraries the co-partners 
with the schools. 

Public Support of this Work. — At least thirty-five states 
have provided through legislation for the support in whole or 
in part of library work.in connection with public education. A 
few instances may be given as typical of the whole list : Colo- 
rado grants an annual tax of one-tenth of a mill for the sup- 
port of school libraries; Delaware pays ^loo annually to the 
chairman of the committee on travelling libraries for circu- 
lation in public schools ; Idaho imposes a tax not exceeding 
one mill on the dollar for libraries in connection with public 
schools ; Indiana permits a tax of one mill on the dollar ; 
Iowa grants from the district-school fund not less than five 
cents or more than fifteen cents for each person of school 
age; Kansas grants a tax not exceeding two mills on the 
dollar; Maryland grants ^lO to each school district, provided 
the people in that district raise the same amount ; New Jersey 
grants $20 to any district which raises by tax or in any other 
way a like amount ; New York grants to each school district 
an amount equal to that raised from taxation or other sources 
for library purposes ; Oklahoma grants from the district- 
school fund for the use of public libraries from $^ to i^ioo, 
according to the number of teachers employed. 

It is evident that the small appropriations made by many 
states will play no very important part in the hbrary work of 



The Widening Sphere of Public Edtuation 577 

a community with public libraries fully equipped and strongly 
^ possessed with the educational possibilities lying before them. 
But as before intimated, the idea of library extension is so 
consistent with all educational progress that we may expect 
to see in both town and country rapid growth along the lines 
we have indicated. 

School Gardens. — Several years since, the national govern- 
ment made use of its consular service to -gather information 
concerning the progress of the school-garden movement in 
Europe. It was found that in most countries the school gar- 
den had become a definite feature of the school and later re- 
ports have confiirmed that statement. The Bureau of Educa- 
tion has recently published a document on nature study and 
school gardens which shows that rapid progress has been 
made not only in Europe but in this country in the adoption 
by educational and civic authorities of the school garden as a 
proper and vital feature of. educational work. The first school 
garden in America is credited to the George Putnam School 
in Roxbury, Massachusetts. The idea expressed in that small 
beginning has, like all other worthy educational undertakings, 
gradually reached nearly every section of the country. 

School Gardens in Europe. — Referring to European exam- 
ples, it should be said that Berlin has large grounds for 
gardening in which every child who desires may have a 
garden of his own. Moreover, there are sent daily to the 
elementary schools of the city wagon-loads of leaves, flowers, 
and plants from a central botanical garden for use in nature 
study, drawing, and elementary science. Switzerland has 
school gardens in connection with all the normal schools and 
they are now well estabHshed in the elementary schools of the 
republic. For many years Belgium has made definite require- 
ments of every school in this direction, and the training thus 
given is thought to have imparted a considerable impetus to 
vegetable gardening. The French government reports about 
30,000 elementary schools with gardens. One authority 
declares that this number is far inside of the facts. In the 
. Netherlands the movement is well advanced, and in Italy it 
has just begun. More progress has been made in English 



578 Educational Administration 

colonies than in England. The establishment of such normal 
schools as the Macdonald College near Montreal, is likely to 
put the province well in advance of the United States in 
respect to garden work in schools. 

Results in Typical Places. — In St. Louis, Chicago, Washing- 
ton, Omaha, Worcester, Cleveland, Brookline, New York City, 
Rochester, Yonkers, Philadelphia, Hampton, Virginia, and 
other places, school gardens are well established, and their 
growth is likely to be rapid in the immediate future. The nor- 
mal school at Hyannis, Massachusetts, has not only illustrated 
the value of the school garden, but has developed to the highest 
degree its economic, educational, and moral aspects, so that 
the teachers trained in that school will be especially well fitted 
to initiate similar work wherever they may be called to teach. 
The extension work done in the De Witt Clinton Park in New 
York City is significant because of the large numbers of chil- 
dren who work there in the summer with a minimum of over- 
sight and with comparatively little need of restraint or com- 
pulsion. 

Grounds of Public Support. — School officials cannot justly 
regard the school garden as a fad, considering what it means 
to the urban child in fresh air, sunlight, industrial experience, 
close and instructive contact with nature, familiarity with the 
processes whereby plants germinate, grow, and mature, the 
lessons of social cooperation which they learn, the withdrawal 
of the children for the time being from the street and other 
contaminating influences, the pleasant occupation afforded 
during hours out of school and possibly in vacation, for all 
these things tend to give a high educational and ethical sig- 
nificance to this form of education. 

Perhaps the organization of school gardens has been 
attended with as many difficulties in New York City as 
anywhere, but it is interesting to know that upon vacant 
lots, the use of which was donated by wealthy owners, 
472 individual gardens were planted during the past sum- 
mer. Then there are other gardens, several hundred in 
number, in different parts of the city. Many bushels of 
vegetables were thus produced at very small expense, and the 



The Widening Sphere of Public Education 579 

children are reported to have found great pleasure in carrying 
home the fruits of their labors. 

Vacation Schools. — The rapid growth of summer vacation 
schools for children who are obliged to spend the heated term 
in the city has been a noble feature of school extension during 
the past few years. There has been wide differentiation in 
the working out of this problem, and the reports which come 
from different cities, now quite voluminous, are full of interest. 
In Greater New York, during the summer of 1907, 31 such 
schools were conducted. The average attendance in 469 classes 
was upwards of 16,000. The subjects taught were elementary 
and advanced sewing, dressmaking, milHnery, knitting and cro- 
cheting, embroidery, domestic science, basketry, chair caning, 
elementary wood work, bench work, Venetian iron work, 
leather and burnt wood, nature, art, kindergarten, and con- 
necting classes, classes in English to foreigners, and city 
history. Here, as in all such schools, manual training was 
an important feature, and the great variety of projects under- 
taken suggests how closely this branch of instruction is made 
to contribute to the needs of the home and the personal 
wishes of the pupils. This, of course, is especially true in 
the work in dressmaking, millinery, embroidery, etc., as well 
as in the cooking classes, where great emphasis was laid upori 
plain cooking such as would be most useful. Other features 
of the New York work are vacation playgrounds, 88 in num- 
ber, roof playgrounds, of which there are 11, 31 recreation 
centres open every night except Sunday from October 15 
to June 15, clubs of a literary and social nature, classes 
in gymnastics, interclub tournaments, and games. 

The City responsible for Child Saving. — The purpose now 
rapidly growing to place at the service of the children and 
youth of a city the best possible facilities for social and 
industrial growth, as well as for recreation, thus making the 
vacation periods of great educational value, has the approval 
not only of sociologists, but of educators. It remains for 
school officials to develop these lines of work in such a way 
as not to be too great a burden upon the taxpayers and at 
the same time to provide these saving and uplifting influences 



580 Educational Administration 

which are especially needed when the schools are not regu- 
larly in session. 

Beautifying the City. — The movement for civic improve- 
ment and beauty now active in many towns and cities is 
worthy of attention in the schools. What has been done in 
many communities by village improvement and tree-planting 
societies, park commissions, and societies for the promotion 
of municipal art may well be taken up by the schools, espe- 
cially in the departments of art and in connection with work 
in school gardens. There is no branch of aesthetic training 
which gives more substantial and permanent values than the 
beautifying of the landscape, whether it be in the vicinity of 
simple homes of wage-earners, the more ambitious residences, 
or the walks, drives, and vacant spaces of the city. The 
development of more beautiful architecture needs to be 
accompanied by increased care and taste on the part of the 
people at large in making their environment more attractive 
and in thus giving a practical turn to the art instruction of the 
schools. 

REFERENCES 

• Lindsay, S. M. New Duties and Opportunities for the Public Schools, 
Soc. Ed. Quar., March, 1907, p. 79. — Draper, A. S. Our Children, Our 
Schools, and Our Industries, An. Rep. 1908, N. Y. St. Ed. Dept. — Lee, J. 
Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy. — Spargo, J. Hov/ Foreign 
Municipalities feed their Children, Char, and the Com. 16: 198. — Woods, 
R. A. Social Work, a New Profession, Char, and the Com. 15:469. — 
School Temperance Societies, C. R. 1899:613; Medical Inspection of 
Schools Abroad, C. R. 1902: XXXI, 1902:509; Medical Supervision of 
Schools in Berlin, C. R. 1903:663. — Lowman, J. H., M.D. Tuberculosis 
and the Schools, Char, and the Com. 18 : 657. — Cabot, R. C, and Devine, 
E. T. What is Social Work ? Char, and the Com. 19 : no. 5. — Riis, J. A. 
How Helena became a Clean City, Char, and the Com. 19 : 1793 ; Domestic 
Science Conference, N. E. A. 1901 : 586. — Richards, Mrs. E. H. Domes- 
tic Science as a Synthetic Study for Girls, N. E. A. 1898 : 766. — Dewey, 
M. Travehng Libraries (Univ. of State of N.Y.). — Baldwin, E. G. Re- 
port of the Committee on Instruction in Library Administration in Normal 
Schools (N. E. A.) (May, 1906). — Meleney, C. E. Place of the Library 
in School Instruction, N. E. A. 1904:924; Public, Society, and School 
Libraries, C. R. 1895 : 339 ; Library Legislation in the United States, C. R. 
1895:523; Report of the Committee of the N. E. A. on the Relations of 



The Widening Sphere of Public Education 581 

Public Libraries to Public High Schools, C. R. 1900 : 663 ; The Public School 
and the Public Library, C. R. 1897 : 673. — Carpenter, F. O. The Library 
the Centre of the Schools, Ed. 26:110. — Foster, W. E. The School 
and the Library, Ed. Rev. 19 : 279. — Peckham, G. W. The Public Library 
and the Public School, Ed. Rev. 8 : 358. — Shaw, A. Vacation Camps 
and Boys' Republics, Rev. of Rev. 13:572. — Robinson, C. M. Vaca- 
tion Schools, Ed. Rev. 17:250. — Betts, L. W. The Children out of 
School Hours, Outlook, 75 : 209. Vacation Schools and School Play- 
grounds, Chic. Ed. Com. 152. — Greenwood, J. M. Vacation Schools, 
Ed. 22:626. — Jones, K. A. Vacation Schools in the United States, 
Rev. of Rev. 17 : 710. — Lee, J. Playground Education, Ed. Rev. 22 :449. 
— American, S. Vacation Schools, Ed. 26:509. — Curtis, H. S. Va- 
cation Schools, Playgrounds, etc., C. R. 1903 : 2. — Putnam, Dr. H. C. 
Vacation Schools, Forum, 30 : 492. — Whitney, E. E. Vacation Schools, 
Playgrounds, and Recreation Centres, N. E. A. 1904:298. — Riis, J. A. 
The Genesis of the Gang, Atl. Mo. 84 : 302. — Holden, C. New Departures 
in School Administration, N. E. A. 1903:914. — Shaw, A. M. The 
Spread of Vacation Schools, World's Work, 8: 5405. — Tolman, W. H. 
Vacation Schools in New York, Rev. of Rev. 16: 191. — Wharton, G. W. 
The City for the Children, Outlook, 72 : 30. Vacation Schools. See in- 
dex to Char, and the Com., esp. Vols. 4 to 13. — Stewart, S. T. Vacation 
Schools and Playgrounds, Outlook, 62:798. — Jewell, J. R. Agricultural 
Education, including Nature Study and School Gardens, Bur. of Ed. 
Bulletin 2, 1907. — Galloway, B. T. School Gardens, Bulletin 160, U. S. 
Dept. of Agri. — Bright, O. T. School Gardens, City School Yards, and 
the Surroundings of Rural Schools, N. E. A. 1903:77. — Bowles, J. M. 
A Flower Garden for Every Child, World's Work, 8 : 4799. School 
Gardens : Bibliography, Outlook, 71 : 852. — Clapp, H. L. School Gardens, 
N. E. A. 1903: 85. — Gang, E. (of Thuringia, Germ.). School Gardens, 
C. R. 1898:1067. — lies, G. Teaching Farmers' Children on the 
Ground, World's Work, 6:3415. — Lukens, H. T. A School Garden in 
Thuringia, Ed. Rev. 17:237. — Poe, C. H. Farmer Children need 
Farmer Studies, World's Work, 6:3760. — Parsons, F. G. The First 
Children's Farm, Outlook, 74:67. School Gardens in Germany, C. R. 
1889:308. — Clapp, H. L. School Gardens in America — an Experiment 
and Some Methods, Pop. Sci. Mo. 52 : 445 ; School Gardens in Europe 
and Some Methods employed in America, C. R. 1897 : 224. — Curtis, H. S. 
Washington Finding Playgrounds, Char, and the Com. 19 : 1699. The Play- 
ground Association of America, Char, and the Com. 19 : 1399. — Munson, J. 
P. Education through Nature Study. — Kern, O. K. Educational Possibil- 
ities for Country Children in the United States, N. E. A. 1904:89. — 
Bonebrake, L. D. The Centralization of the Rural School, N. E. A. 
1901:804. — Baldwin, W. A. Industrial Social Education. — Report of 
the Commission on Industrial and Technical Education, T. C. Ed. Rep. 
April, 1906. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

The School and Society 

The Effect of Urban Growth. — In considering as a whole 
the various topics of the preceding chapter, it should be re- 
membered that many of the activities outlined as belonging 
to modern school work are not really new or unusual. They 
are intended to supply the great loss which has overtaken the 
rising generation in the ascendency of urban growth as com- 
pared with life under rural conditions. The schools of earlier 
days, which seem so meagre and narrow, were attended by 
children who enjoyed the benefits of an exceedingly diversi- 
fied industrial life. The boys and girls of fifty or seventy- 
five years ago, either in the village or on the farm, received 
in their ordinary experiences much and more than the 
modern city child can possibly derive from vacation schools, 
school gardens, and clubs. Increasing congestion in our 
cities makes it imperative to supply these somewhat artificial 
means of affording children healthy occupation of an indus- 
trial sort, and recreations which are at the same time educa- 
tive. When we contemplate the zeal and open-handedness 
with which the field of educational endeavor has been ex- 
tended in ever widening circles, we find great ground for 
faith in the people in view of the cheerfulness with which 
these additional features are supported and the evident 
appreciation with which they are utilized. 

The Home and the School. — We find in this generous pro- 
vision for the newer humanities in school training one cause 
for the improved relation, now existing throughout the country 
between the home and the schools. This growth in mutual 
respect and confidence has been so gradual as to be almost 
unnoticed, but it is little short of a revolution. Among the 
many causes for it may be mentioned — 

582 



The School and Society 583 

First, the more dignified place which schools hold in the 
community as expressed in noble and attractive buildings and 
grounds and the amplitude of equipment for all kinds of 
school work. 

Second, the increasing disposition on the part of schools to 
open their doors so that parents, not only on special occasions, 
but at other times, may be welcome to come and gain first- 
hand knowledge of what the schools are doing for their 
children. 

Third, a change amounting almost to a revolution has been 
made in American schools during the last half-century in re- 
spect to the purposes and methods of discipline and in the 
relations maintained between pupils and teachers. It is re- 
markable how quietly and universally this change has been 
brought about. As a rule, children enjoy the school and 
highly esteem their teachers. Not infrequently there is a 
sort of comradeship and friendliness leading to bonds of at- 
tachment which become lasting, and our American youth in 
future will have something to say of their teachers more than 
to recall the instances when they incurred punishment. 

Fourth, the studies have been broadened and deepened 
and made vastly more interesting ; text-books have improved 
in quality, and although often much too full and discursive, are 
used in such a supplementary way as not to prove a detri- 
ment to mental progress- 
Fifth, while there is still much instability in the teaching 
force, an increasingly large number of teachers are permanent, 
and the sense of professional pride and ambition has increased. 
These and many other influences have lifted the schools in 
popular appreciation. As a rule, where private schools 
flourish, it is not because parents beheve them to be more 
efficient than public schools, but because the traditions of the 
family or convenience or the peculiar needs of the children 
make it expedient to send them to private institutions. 

Homes have Improved. — While schools have been improv- 
ing, homes have improved also. Great prosperity through- 
out the country has largely removed the need of poverty, and 
in town and city, wage-earners are able to surround themselves 



584 Educational Administration 

with comforts and even luxuries. Civic institutions provide 
means of intellectual and moral nourishment, and the general 
home life of the American people in its material aspects, at least, 
is of a high order. It is astonishing how quickly the immi- 
grant class, employing methods of thrift and economy which 
were enforced upon them by hard conditions of living in the 
old country, are able to surround themselves with comfort 
and often to make headway in gaining a higher social position. 
Probably no class of persons is more outspoken in its grati- 
tude to the public schools than those who have come from 
other lands in recent years and have been able to see their 
children educated under conditions often more advantageous 
than those which they left behind. 

Personal Influence of Teacher. — Asa final word upon the re- 
lations of the school and home, it is evident that under the 
better conditions we have described the relations of teacher 
and pupil, as well as those of teacher and parent, become 
more ideally human. The schools are open to the people, 
and the homes of the people are open to welcome the 
teachers. Teachers often gain an influence over children 
which parents do not possess and are able to guide them into 
paths of truth, earnestness, and success. Let it never be for- 
gotten that the home, of all human institutions, stands first. 
Other things may be changed or pass away, but the home 
and the family are rooted in the deep shadows of an unknown 
past, and their significance in the upward progress of man- 
kind has steadily increased. 

The School and the Church. — The formal separation of 
church and state, while permitting the freer and more effec- 
tive development of public institutions, including education, 
has nevertheless favored a certain amount of separateness and 
lack of coordination which is inconsistent in an age which 
boasts itself that bigotry and narrowness have been largely 
put aside. One supreme fact simply stated is, the church 
needs the school more than ever, and the school needs the 
church more than ever. The church is employed in the work 
of saving and uplifting men and women and instructing them 
in the highest ideals of service, sacrifice, and faith. The 



The School and Society 585 

school also finds its truest mission in seeking moral devel- 
opment, and training mind and heart for the higher forms of 
service. But the church, being somewhat restrained and 
impeded by the restriction of ancient forms, has been slow in 
allying itself with state education, on the ground that it has 
gone far afield from the doctrines of the fathers and is neg- 
lecting to train the conscience toward the dictates of religion. 
The school, on the other hand, while manned and served by 
the devotees of religion, goes on doing its work of moral reform, 
yet wondering why the church is so unappreciative of its 
work. The difficulty is much more than skin deep. The 
tenets of a particular faith are esteemed as of more conse- 
quence than those great ideals, which are world-wide and uni- 
versal, and which should, and no doubt will, in the not-distant 
future, unite the followers of various creeds as well as workers 
for human redemption. Dr. W. T. Harris, the late Commis- 
sioner of Education, in closing a paper read before the Inter- 
national Congress at St. Louis, said : — 

" Social culture in the form of the church and the school as independent 
institutions becomes possible only on the basis of the religious world view 
of Christianity ; and the perennial continuance of the world view of Chris- 
tianity through the special form of social culture which belongs to the 
church, is a necessary condition presupposed by the forms of social 
culture intrusted to the school." 

School and Church in Alliance. — There are many and 
strong indications that this imaginary gulf between the so- 
called "sacred" and "secular" aims of teaching will even- 
tually be bridged over. One is that here and there churches 
are being transformed into institutions carrying on almost 
every form of educational work, where the methods of modern 
education are applied. The second evidence is that preachers 
generally are adopting a more pedagogic method. The sim- 
ple and direct appeal made in the pulpits to-day for the 
upright Hfe, for honesty, purity, and fidehty in all relations, 
public and private, brings the church more nearly into 
alliance with the school, and reveals the real oneness of pur- 
pose which dominates them both. School officers and the 
clergy owe a duty to the community they serve in striving 
to establish good working relations so that education in 



586 Educational Administration 

all its departments, intellectual, moral, and spiritual, may not 
be hampered by petty or unfriendly suspicions. 

The School and Culture Forces. — Another phase of progress 
is the better apprehension of the relation of the school to 
those complementary institutions in the community which are 
becoming increasingly efficient. In the previous chapter we 
have spoken of the public library as one of the greatest 
educational means and some ways in which the school is 
making use of it. Of almost equal importance are music, 
art, and those institutions which foster an interest in the 
various departments of science, history, and civic reform. 
The same generous readiness to help the schools, now seen 
in the great public libraries of the country, is also manifested 
by museums of art and natural history. Collections are 
arranged with special reference to schools ; officers are ap- 
pointed to instruct classes of students or to send material to 
schools. Thus the young are forming a habit of seeing and 
studying the great works of nature and of man. Their in- 
tellectual judgment and aesthetic taste are being cultivated 
so that, as in Europe, our public museums are thronged by 
young and old, and a part, at least, of the tide of growing 
humanity is turned in the direction of knowledge and culture 
and away from those cheap amusements of the street which 
are anything but elevating. 

Continuation of Culture Influences. — A closer union should 
be made between the school and those organizations which 
are devoted to music and other forms of culture, so that those 
who graduate from our schools may be given credentials 
which will admit them to membership. Thus the boy or the 
girl who has an aptitude for art or music or natural history 
will graduate into a circle through which he may, in his leisure 
hours, still further cultivate his talents. To put it otherwise, 
the idea expressed in peoples' choruses should be greatly ex- 
tended, so that there may be strong democratic provision for 
the encouragement and culture of all competent youth. 

The Free Lecture System. — For about twenty years, New 
York has enjoyed a remarkable system of adult education, 
inaugurated and guided by Dr. Henry M. Leipziger. It is 



The School and Society 587 

really much more than its name implies, for it works in close 
alliance with the public libraries, provides syllabi, and by 
means of the stereopticon makes subjects vivid and real. In 
the report for 1906- 1907, we find that lectures were given in 
166 centres on more than 1500 different topics before 5300 
audiences by a staff of 540 lecturers, and that the total attend- 
ance was considerably above 1,000,000 people. In these 
lectures every possible subject is covered and every possible 
need, whether of a cultural, industrial, political, or social char- 
acter, is, as far as possible, met. The director of this work 
receives many letters from wage-earners and others, express- 
ing their gratitude for the beneficence of the municipality in 
providing this great " people's university." The example set 
by New York has been followed in greater or less degree by 
many other cities, and the principle that the whole adult 
population is to be placed at school and that the city school 
system is to set no particular boundaries to its efforts, is 
generally accepted. Says the director of this work : — 

" It is to increase the morality of our city that the public lecture system 
serves its greatest purpose. The object of education is not merely to make 
better engineers or better workers, but to make better men and women — 
men and women of finer and loftier political and social ideals." 

The Festival.^ — As rest is recognized as a definite factor in 
growth, so leisure is seen as a more positive element in educa- 
tion. In the older forms of society the festival had an impor- 
tant function to serve, which has become somewhat obscured 
during the period in which the great industrial and mechanical 
changes have centred attention upon activity in the form of 
work. In many ways play is coming to its own in school and in 
social life generally, and one of the most significant manifesta- 
tions is in the attention now given to the festival. There is in 
it an appreciation of the need of influences which shall supple- 
ment the many tendencies toward uniformity by an increased 
recognition of the elements of individuality and initiative. 

In the school it is possible, by this means, to bring about a 
participation by students in problems involving historical, 

1 For suggestions concerning the Festival the authors are indebted to Mr. 
Fr^njc A- Maunj, formerly principal of the Ethical Culture School, New York. 



588 Educational Administration 

literary, musical, graphic art, dance, and other material giving 
social meaning to these and affording resources for leisure 
and entertainment. The early beginnings connect with the 
best that is found in the kindergarten and elementary school, 
and point to one means of giving a richer content to the 
grammar school years. Original communications in word, 
music, gesture by individuals, lead to group productions in 
later years, in which there is opportunity to learn the possibili- 
ties of cooperative production and to profit by discussion and 
criticism. The occasions that arise to meet novel situations 
are also of value, as is the training that comes through the 
possibility of pupils of various ages providing entertainment 
for those who are older and younger than themselves. A 
most significant outcome is the effect upon the use of lan- 
guage. This has been especially noticeable in the children's 
theatres in connection with settlements. Some of the most 
serious dialect difficulties have yielded to this influence more 
than to any other. The question has arisen here as to the 
relation of these developments to the cases of " stage struck " 
children. The director of a most conspicuous movement 
states that of several hundred children who have taken part 
in plays in a slum district not one has gone on to the profes- 
sional stage, and that many who were inclined that way have 
found this experience satisfying without going farther. 

There has been sufficient accomplished in schools and else- 
where to show that this work can, on the one hand, tax the most 
efficient corps of experts and, on the other, it affords a valu- 
able aid to the work of the teacher of narrower horizon and 
limited resources. 

The simple dramatizations of fable, fairy tale, anecdote, and 
ballad give a dynamic element in both English and modern 
language work with younger children. The nodal points of 
the year, — Thanksgiving, Christmas, Patriot's Day, May Day, 
and others — furnish opportunity for productions in which 
pupils can put the best results of the material of their course 
of study. Occasions like the great world exhibitions at St. 
Louis can mean a dramatization of the French movement in 
America ; the Lewis and Clark celebration, the centenary of 



The School and Society 589 

Franklin's death, etc., make it possible to render significant 
in a vital way great periods and great achievements. 

The test of any work is the satisfaction it gives to those 
concerned and the way it prepares for further situations. It 
is interesting to note that this work as observed in schools 
which have made use of it for a number of years, shows a 
tendency at the beginning of the secondary period to turn 
more and more to the employment of the productions of 
others. This would seem desirable, for the interests and 
habits which students have developed in their own productions 
along the line of better understanding of the problems in- 
volved, are carried over into more classic materials at a time 
when they are intellectually and emotionally ready to appre- 
ciate them. 

The summer camp has made progress in this matter, and in 
a number of directions there is advance. One can see, how- 
ever, that wise workers, by a study of the field, will find in the 
religious festivals of more primitive people — the marionette 
play, the pageant, local celebrations, as May morning at 
Magdalene — suggestions of educational value. Much less 
artistic, but of great importance, are those aspects of this phase 
of life which one finds in the church and Sunday-school en- 
tertainments. Even the five-cent theatre, with all its defects, 
is found by social workers to have a positive value. With the 
schools and settlements leading the way, we may hope that 
the social forces of the community may develop this festival 
function, so that in time, with more stable population, we may 
have an institution corresponding to that of the old days in 
its representation of local tastes and interests with the possi- 
bilities these offer of artistic communication, but with an 
added educational significance that comes from conscious 
initiation and adaptation. 

High School Extension. — The high school staff usually in- 
cludes persons of superior training and culture, who have much 
to give which would be of value to men and women in the com- 
munity. In some instances courses of public lectures have 
been given by high school teachers, accompanied by syllabi 
and references which have been highly appreciated. Such 



590 Educational Administration 

lectures are especially helpful when they are related to the 
studies of pupils in history, geography, literature, and science. 
Parents becoming informed in those fields of knowledge 
which their children are pursuing are able to talk with them 
about these subjects, and thus introduce into the family life 
worthy topics of conversation. Another advantage of such 
work is that teachers become better known and more highly 
respected, and the high school becomes more truly, as it 
should be, a centre of intellectual life. 

Social Centres. — The recent refusal on the part of the 
School Board of Baltimore to open the schoolhouses to the 
people, and the reversal of that decision under pressure from 
the press and the public, is somewhat typical of the changing 
attitude to be seen throughout the country. In former times 
a schoolhouse, like the public library, was to be kept locked, 
except for the narrow purposes which were officially ap- 
proved. But all this has changed. The library and the 
school are for the people ; their doors are to be kept open 
during those hours when it is convenient for people to come 
and make use of these facilities for education and social im- 
provement. It is recognized that this question has an aspect 
which is at once moral and economic. The same state and 
municipal authorities which support schools are also engaged 
in preventing crime and protecting society from its ravages. 
The opening of schools as civic centres for classes, lecture 
courses, clubs, games, entertainments, and other forms of 
education and recreation, tend to draw both young and old 
from the street and from activities of questionable influence. 
Anything which saves people from themselves and introduces 
hope, ambition, and good cheer certainly justifies the effort 
which it costs. 

Associations of Parents and Citizens. — The school may 
greatly increase its influence and strengthen its contribution 
to society by taking parents into its confidence, and organiz- 
ing such associations as may be most useful. The stream of 
life which flows through the schools should reach the homes, 
not only through the children, but by direct contact with the 
parents, It is most important that teachers should not only 



The School and Society 591 

understand and thoroughly believe in what they are doing, 
but that parents should have the same understanding and 
belief, or, to put it in another way, that the home and the 
school, being complementary, should each respect and have 
faith in the other. 

Teacher may Instruct Parents. — There are some definite 
things about which parents may wisely be informed by the 
teachers : — 

First, they should be often reminded that the school and 
the home can only develop such powers as the Creator has 
given the child. Not a single brain cell can be added, neither 
can any special endowment be imparted. This is necessary, 
because parents, often the most intelligent, are apt to think 
that all their children should be equal in ability. This causes 
much pain, misunderstanding, and sadness in the home, and 
often does great harm to the individual child. 

Second, the parents should be instructed as to the relative 
place of the " three R's " and the more cultural subjects in 
the curriculum. 

Third, the strongest possible appeal should be made con- 
cerning everything respecting health and the importance of 
food, dress, sleep, fresh air, exercise, and recreation. 

Fourth, parents should realize that efficiency and moral 
strength come through self-activity and self-direction, and 
that the change which has taken place in the school should 
also appear in the home, so that parents and children may 
cultivate sweetness, courtesy, mutual regard, and helpful- 
ness as well as the more sterling virtues of obedience and 
honesty. 

Methods of Instructing Parents. — Among the means which 
may be employed by teachers to communicate these ideas to 
parents may be mentioned : — 

First, parents' meeting, in which there is free and frank 
interchange of ideas. 

Second, through written or printed circulars, containing 
outlines of work being attempted in schools, with lists of 
books suggested for home reading. 

Third, by visits of teachers to the homes and of parents to 



592 Educational Administration 

the school for better acquaintance and for discussion of any 
matters which may arise. 

Fourth, by having pupils carry home their written work in 
order that their parents may examine it, and by having pupils 
write letters to their parents about their studies. 

Fifth, by seeing that pupils carry to the home as few mis- 
understandings or unpleasant impressions respecting their 
teachers as possible. 

Educational Work of Women. — In the previous chapter 
we have spoken in favor of appointing women as members of 
school committees. The same reasons which make that de- 
sirable favor meetings of mothers of the younger children in 
order that teachers may consider with them in detail the 
many questions so fundamental in that stage of school life. 

Perhaps no one factor has done more to give popular edu- 
cation a place in the thought of the community than the 
activity of women's clubs. These organizations, so numerous 
and so earnest, have both in their meetings at home and in 
their great federated gatherings always made education in its 
various forms their chiefest topic. In many instances these 
clubs have initiated the beautifying of school grounds, have 
adorned schools with works of art, have organized vacation 
schools, school gardens, playgrounds, and other beneficent 
enterprises. Many a school superintendent has needed only 
to follow the leadership of wise women who, better than he, 
could bring to bear the force of public opinion upon the 
school board and thus secure needed reforms. 

Societies for Educational Work. — There have been many 
societies organized for the special purpose of cooperating 
with the schools. The Public Education Societies of New 
York and Philadelphia are conspicuous instances of such vol- 
unteer associations. It is well known that the results accom- 
plished in these cities in the way of improved administration 
and enlarged facilities owe a great deal to these societies. 
Nothing is more encouraging to the educator than to find 
that people of standing and intelligence are quite ready to 
meet and discuss the broad educational movements of the 
day. The Round Table of New York, during its whole six 



The School and Society 593 

years of existence, has had an average attendance of from two 
to three hundred people, showing that its members greatly 
enjoy its advantages. 

Social Machines. — The bulletin of the Chicago Teachers' 
Federation publishes a list of what it calls " social machines," 
all of which touch the public school at some point. This list 
includes " school children's aid society, day nurseries, free 
kindergarten associations, social settlements, religious educa- 
tion associations, municipal voters' league, consumers' league, 
neighborhood improvement associations, parents' and teachers' 
clubs, visiting nurse associations, vacation school and play- 
ground committees, home-finding associations, public school 
art societies, municipal lodging-house associations, societies for 
the protection of women and children, the juvenile court, the 
parental school, the school fellowship committee." Such 
an array of forces marshalled in alliance with our public 
school systems should give courage to every school officer. 
No one to-day works alone. He simply goes forward, keep- 
ing step with a great army of other workers, all pursuing the 
same social and educational ideal. 

New Moral Standards. — More and more this ideal is to be 
sought along the pathway of the new humanitarianism, which 
is now seen at its dawn, but is soon to illumine the whole 
earth. This ideal is at once altruistic and practical. It seeks 
equal opportunities for all ; it stands for human brotherhood ; 
it believes that man is made to create and not to destroy ; it 
sees that the age of militarism with its wastefulness and 
destruction has nearly passed ; it recognizes the fact that when 
one member of society suffers, all suffer, and that when one 
nation is afflicted or injured, other nations must feel the evil 
effects ; it seeks to level up, to increase efficiency, security, 
and happiness. Says Jane Addams ^ in her introduction to a 
recent remarkable book : — 

" It is no easy task to detect and to follow the tiny paths of progress 
which the unencumbered proletarian, with nothing but his life and capacity 
for labor, is pointing out for us. These paths lead to a type of government 
founded upon peace and fellowship as contrasted with restraint and de- 

^ Addams, Jane, Newer Ideals of Peace. 

2Q 



594 Educational Administration 

fence. They can never be discovered with the eye of the doctrinaire. 
From the nature of the case, he who would walk these paths must walk 
with the poor and oppressed, and can only approach them through affec- 
tion and understanding." 

Public education must take note of all those yearnings of 
men and women to serve each other better, to gain higher 
levels of social and intellectual life ; and administrative 
officers will surely recognize the validity of the humanitarian 
movement, world-wide in its scope, which promises to soften 
all asperities, enrich every human relation, and set the seal of 
arbitration and conciliation upon the nations of the world. 
The tendency to introduce lessons upon peace and interna- 
tional good-will into public and private schools may be re- 
garded as a climax to all the socializing tendencies which we 
have recorded. This appeal to a larger patriotism is at once 
an interpretation of history and a revelation of human prog- 
ress. Some are saying, " Why should the schools be asked 
to add another study .'' " But such persons will soon fall 
into line, and pubhc education will be lifted accordingly. 
Lord Bacon was truly sagacious when he said, " Men, till a 
matter be done, wonder that it can be done, and as soon as 
it is done, wonder again that it was not sooner done." 

REFERENCES 

Hall, G. S. Some Social Aspects of Education, Ed. Rev. 23:433. — 
Dewey, J. The School and Society. — Sadler, M. E. The School in 
Some of its Relations to Social Organization and to National Life, Ed. 
Rev. 29 : 338. — Paulding, J. K. The Public School as a Centre of Com- 
munity Life, Ed. Rev. 15 : 147. — Button, S. T. Social Phases of Educa- 
tion. — Dewey, J. Are the Schools doing what the People want them to 
Do? Ed. Rev. 21 : 459. — Halsey, R. H. Various Forms of Cooperation 
between School and Community, N. E. A. 1897 : 257. — Hyde, W. D. The 
Social Mission of the Public School, Ed. Rev. 12 : 221. — Howerth, L W. 
The Social End of Education, Fifth Herbart Year Book, 69. — Howerth, 
L W. The Development of the Social Aim in Education, Jour, of Ped. 
12: 230. — Vincent, G. E. Social Science and the Curriculum, N. E. A. 
1901:124. — Crouzet, Maitres et Parents. Paris, 1906. — Ross, E. A. 
Social Control. — The Results of Home Training and Influence, C. R. 
1 891 : 231. — Norton, A. The School and Home, El. Sch. Tea. 3 : 128 and 
4:716. — Palmer F. H. How the Home may help the School, Ed. 21 : 
292. — Karr, G. The Aim of Education in School and Home, Jour, of 



The School and Society 595 

Ped. 17 : 24. — Chrisman, O. The Relations of the Home to the Wayward 
Child, N. E. A. 1904: 800. — Harris, W. T. Social Culture in the Form 
of Education and Religion, Ed. Rev. 29 : 18. — Button, S. T. Educational 
Resources of the Community, Ed. Rev. 21 : 17. — Clarke, C. P. A Mu- 
seum of Art in Public Education, March, 1908, Bui. Univ. of State of 
N.Y., p. 33. — Farrington, O. C. The Educational Value of Mu- 
seums, N. E. A. 1902:765. — Scudder, H. E. The Schoolhouse as a 
Centre, Atl. Mo. 77 : 103. — Eliot, C. W. The Full Utilization of the 
Public School Plant, N. E. A. 1903: 241. — Dewey, J. The School as a 
Social Centre, El. Sch. Tea. 3 : 73 ; Open Schools for Baltimore, Char, 
and the Com. 19: 1641. — Dewey, J. The School as a Social Centre, N. 
E. A. 1902:373. — Gove, A. Proper Use of Schoolhouses, N. E. A. 
1897:253. — Harrison, E. The Scope and Results of Mothers' Classes, 
N. E. A. 1903 : 400 ; Conference of Education Associations, Pub. Ed. Assn. 
of Phila., Twenty-fifth An. Rep., p. 45 ; School Visitors,*Pub. Ed. Assn. 
of Phila., Twenty-fifth An. Rep., p. 25. — Bruce, B. S. Parents' Meetings, 
Ed. Rev. 18:185. — Butterfield, K. L. Neighborhood Cooperation in 
School Life, — The Hesperia Movement, Rev. of Rev. 23 : 443. — Caldwell, 
W. T. Mothers' Meetings, N. E. A. 1895 : 535. — Van Rensselaer, M. G. 
The Public Education Association, Ed. Rev. 16:209. — Phenix, G. P. 
Women's Clubs and Education, Ed. Rev. 17:182. — Lawrence, I. A 
Problem for Women's Clubs, N. E. A. 1905 : 724. — Henrotin, Mrs. E. M. 
The Cooperation of Women's Clubs in the Public Schools, N. E. A. 1897 : 
73. — Harley, L. R. A History of the Public Education Association of 
Philadelphia. — Eliot, C. W. The Expenditure for Public Education jus- 
tified by its Fruits, C. R. 1903: 1362. — Chew, T. Character Making on 
the Street, Rel. Ed. April, 1908. — MacCunn, J. The Making of Charac- 
ter. New York, 1900. — Hughes, R. E. The Making of Citizens. New 
York, 1902. — Kern, O. J. Phases of Modern Education: Consolidation 
of Schools, Ed. 26:14. — Addams, J. Newer Ideals of Peace. New 
York, 1907. — Wilson, E. C. Pedagogues and Parents. — Shute, K. H. 
People and the Schools, Ed. Rev. 21 : 433. — Blaine, A. M. The Dramatic 
in Education, El. Sch. Tea. 4 : 554. — Chubb, P. Function of the Festival 
in School Life, El. Sch. Tea. 4: 559. — Hall, J. Art for School Festivals, 
El. Sch. Tea. March, 1904. — Hall, J. Art for School Festivals, Year 
Book Council of Supervisors of the Manual Arts, 1904. — Herts, A. M. 
Children's Educational Theatre, Atl. Mo. 1907:798. — Patten, S. New 
Basis of Civilization : The Basis in Amusement. — Wilcox, D. F. Ameri- 
can City. 



INDEX 



Accounting in educational administration, 

521. 

Addams, Jane, quoted, 507, 593. 
Administration, Efficiency of, 100. 
Ages of commitment to reform schools, 

450. 
Ages of pupils, Tables showing, 548. 
Agricultural education, 405. 
Alabama, District system of, 91. 
Appointment of school officers, 98. 
Apprenticeship system. Breakdown of, 

406. 
Areas of administration. Problems of, 

113, 115; present tendencies in, 114. 
Assembly hall, 183. 
Associations of parents, 590 ; of teachers, 

271. 
Attendance, Measures of, 544. 
Attendance officers, 541. 

Basement and attic, 183. 

Batavia system, 247. 

Baths, School, 433, 563. 

Beveridge Bill, 502. 

Blackboards, 183. 

Blind, Education of, 469. 

Boards, Administrative, of reform 

schools, 449. 
Boards of education, City, 138; size of, 

98, 138; term of, 140; functions of, 

142; methods of selection, 139. 
Boards of education, County, 77. 
Bosanquet, quoted, 48. 
Boston, School administration of, 133. 
Bureau, National, of Education, 442. 
Bureaucracy in school administration, 

102, 104. 

Cambridge plan of promotion, 345. 
California, County board of, 78; State 

board of, 65. 
Card record. Continuous, 551. 
Census, School, 538; reports, 541; 

forms of, 542. 
Census basis of distributing funds, 158. 
Centralization of administration, 71, 76, 

97. 98. 332- 



Centralization, Forms of, 100; results of, 
104; proper adjustments in, 106; rea- 
sons favoring, 99; reasons against, 103. 

Centralization, in city school administra- 
tion, 130; in municipal government, 

123, 125; in normal schools, 400. 
Certification of teachers, 245. 

Charter provisions in city governments, 

124, 127. 

Child labor legislation, 501; laws, 503; 

weak points in, 508. 
Child study, 311. 
City school administration, 118; relation 

to state, 122; charter provisions, 123; 

centralization in, 123; examples of, 

124; special functions in, 126. 
Classes, Number of sections in, 352. 
Classification of members of reform 

schools, 453. 
Cleveland, City administration of, 134. 
Clubs, Teachers', 298. 
Coeducation, 369. 
Colorado, Compulsory education law of, 

49S- 

Committee of Ten, Report of, 336, 358. 

Commercial education, 405. 

Compulsory education, 47, 236, 492; 
need of, 492 ; examples of legislation 
for, 493 ; principles of, 495 ; vocational 
education as aiiecting, 489; enforce- 
ment of, 501. 

Connecticut, Compulsory education in, 
494; town system of, 89; constitu- 
tion of, 57. 

Consolidation of schools, 94. 

Constitutional conventions, 60. 

Constitution of the United States, 55, 61. 

Constitutions, State, 55, 57. 

Continuation classes, 480. 

Cooperation of faculties and students in 
high schools, 381. 

Coordination of forces affecting delin- 
quents, 466. 

Corporal punishment, 518. 

Correctional education, 445. 

Correlation of studies, 319, 330, 335; of 
vocational and liberal education, 419. 



597 



598 



Index 



Corridors of school buildings, 182. 

Cottage system in reform schools, 450. 

County area, 73, 74; management, 79; 
school board of, 77. 

County superintendent of schools, 80. 

Course of study. Elementary, 314; prin- 
ciples governing, 326; differentiation 
in, 337; congestion of, 318; correla- 
tion in, 319; form of, 320; uniformity 
in, 321; flexibility in, 327; use of 
environment in, 328; integration of 
studies in, 330; sources of, 332. 

Course of study. State, 323. 

Culture education, 452. 

Culture, General, as aim of high school, 
362. 

Custodial care of defectives, 474. 

Deaf, Education of, 469. 
Decentralization, 99. 
Defectiveness, Prevention of, 478. 
Defectives, Administration of education 

of, 468. 
Democracy and education, 42, 85, 560. 
Democracy in school government, 511. 
Departments, Coordination of, in high 

schools, 373. 
Discipline, School, 511. 
Disciplinary classes, 462. 
Disinfection of appliances, 205. 
Districts, Consolidation of, 94. 
Districts, School, 73, 86, 87. 
Domestic art, 571. 
Domestic education, 405. 
Domestic science in education, 570. 
Draper, A. S., quoted, 55. 
Drinking fountains, 206. 

Economic power in graduates of reform 
schools, 455. 

Economics of school administration, 
521. 

Education, Anti-social, 44; cost of, 43; 
free, 43; fourfold in juvenile reform 
schools, 448, 451; for social welfare, 
44; and projected efficiency, 45. 

Education associations, Public, 592. 

Educational values, Problem of, 364. 

Elective system, 365, 367. 

Elementary school curricula, 315. 

England, Distribution of school funds in, 
169. 

English local administration, 113. 

English parliamentary grants, 46. 

Enumeration of children, 538. 



Environment of children, Educational 
use of, 428. 

Erie Report, Table from, 532. 

Evening schools. Special types, 481; 
ages of students in, 482; teaching 
force in, 482; problems of, 484; 
curricula of, 485; text-books for, 487; 
weekly programmes of, 489; practical 
work in, 490. 

Expert service in education, loi ; prob- 
lem of, 115. 

Expenditure for education, 144, 146; 
per capita, 148. 

Feeble-minded, Schools for, 470. 

Feeding of school children, 565. 

Festival, The, as an educational agency, 
587. 

Finances of public education, 143; 
amount and increase, 144; sources, 
145, 147; state legislation affecting, 
150; distribution of, 155; problems 
of, 165. 

Finances of vocational education, 416. 

Flexibility in secondary school curricula, 
366. 

Flexible grading, 353. 

Florida district system, 92. 

France, Child labor legislation in, 505. 

Free education, 43. 

Free-lecture system, 586. 

Free text-books. Effects of, 218; objec- 
tions to, 221. 

Funds, Permanent state, 147; distribu- 
tion of, 156; state, for secondary 
schools, 164; for special schools, 163. 

Games, 433; pathology of, 434. 

Gardens, School, 577; in P^urope, 577; 
public support of, 578. 

George, Jr., Republic, 455, 515. 

Georgia, District system in, 92; child 
labor legislation in, 504; state board 
of, 65. 

Germany, Child labor legislation in, 504. 

Giddings, F. H., quoted, 102. 

Grade, Tables of, 547. 

Grading and promotion, 340. 

Grading, Flexible, 346; Cambridge plan 
of, 345; Batavia system, 346; indi- 
vidual system, 348. 

Grading systems, Merits of, 343. 

Great Britain, Child labor legislation in, 

504- 
Gymnastics, 436. 



Index 



599 



Haskell, quoted, 522. 

High schools. Administration of, 356; 
variability in size of, 357; city, 357; 
specialized teaching in, 357; four 
years' course, 359; influence of col- 
lege on, 361 ; theory of mental disci- 
pline in, 362. 

High school departments. Coordination 

of, 373- 
High school discipline, 381. 
High school extension, 589. 
High school organizations, 378. 
History of education, 387. 
Home and school, 581. 
Home environment, 431. 
Home study, 307. 
Home work in high schools, 377. 
Homes, Improvement of, 584. 
Howison, G. H., quoted, 47. 
Hj'giene, Instruction in, 435. 
Hygiene, Social, 437. 

Indiana, Town and district systems, 90. 
Indiana Reading Circle, 286. 
Industrial specialization, 414. 
Industry, Problem of women in, 417. 
Institutes, Teachers', 277. 
International industrial competition, 43, 

406. 
Iowa, Town and district system, 90. 

James, W., quoted, 310. 
Jenks, J., quoted, 228. 
Juvenile court, 461. 

Kidd, B., 45. 
Kindergarten, 301. 

Laymen as school oflScials, Problem of, 
ii6. 

Leave of absence for teachers, 294. 

Lecture system of New York, 587. 

Legislation, State, 61 ; permissive, 61 ; 
mandatory, 62 ; preliminaries to, 63 ; 
permissive for taxation, 150; manda- 
tory for taxation, 151. 

Leipziger, H. M., 587. 

Libraries, Circulating, 573. 

Library, Public, and the public school, 
572- 

Library work. Training for, 573; for 
children, 575. 

Lighting for schools, 181. 

Local administration, 73. 

Local areas of administration, 85, 95. 



McKechnie, quoted, 45. 

McMurry, C, quoted, 316. 

Maine, Compulsory education in, 494. 

Marshall, Florence M., quoted, 417. 

Maryland, County board of, 77. 

Maryland Pension Law, 269. 

Massachusetts, Compulsory education 
in, 494; state board of, 66; town sys- 
tem of, 89. 

Medical inspection in schools, 296, 304, 

439. 476- 

Mental discipline. Theory of, 362 ; prob- 
lems of, 363. 

Michigan, State board of, 64. 

Nation, as factor in education, 54. 
National Educational Association, 271. 
National government's share in education, 

54- 
Nationality of school children, 549. 
New Haven, School administration of, 

131- 

New Jersey, Constitution of, 57; state 
board of, 66; pension law of, 268. 

New York, Child labor law of, 503 ; com- 
pulsory education in, 493 ; law of, con- 
cerning school buildings, 175; laws of, 
on special classes, 464; state board of, 
67; types of school districts in, 88. 

New York City, Free lecture system of, 
587; school buildings in, 185; special 
charter of, 128. 

Non-institutional schools for defectives, 
474- 

Normal school, The industrial, 389. 

Normal schools. Summer, 285. 

Normal schools, administration of, 386; 
types of, 388; functions of, 391; aims 
of, 392; control of, 396; maintenance 
of, 397; curricula of, 398. 

North Dakota, Superintendent of, quoted, 

79- 
Northwest Territory, 56. 
Nurse, The school, 441. 

Ohio, Child labor law of, 504; compul- 
sory education law of, 495 ; constitution 
of, 58; town and district system of, 91 ; 
state reading circle of, 286. 

Parental schools, 457. 
Parent and school, 519. 
Parents and teachers, 591. 
Parole in reform school, 454. 
Payne, B., quoted, 317. 



6oo 



Index 



Pedagogical principles in reform schools, 
456. 

Pennsylvania, Constitution of, 56, 59; 
law regarding school buildings in, 176. 

Pensions for teachers, 267. 

Per capita cost, Tables showing, 528. 

Physical education, 563; administration, 
of, 426; definitions of, 426; coordina- 
tion of, 427; machinery of, 438; de- 
partment of, 438; directors of, 439; 
regular teachers in, 440. 

Physical education in reform schools, 

451- 
Physical education, Records and reports 

for, 441. 
Physical culture in high schools, 377. 
Physical efi5ciency. Ideals of, 436. 
Playground Association of America, 568. 
Playgrounds, 428, 433, 568. 
Practice teaching in normal schools, 399, 

400. 
Principals of high schools. Functions of, 

371. 372- 

Prizes and rewards, 517. 

Probation officers, 461. 

Programmes, Elementary school, 335; 
secondary school, 336. 

Programmes of high school pupils, 376. 

Professional education, 405. 

Promotion of teachers, 291, 294. 

Promotions or reclassification, 343. 

Promotion, Tests for, 349; examina- 
tions for, 350; by teacher, 350. 

Publication of reports, 556. 

Public health and education, 567. 

Publicity in school administration, S33- 

Pupil government, 513. 

Pupils in high school. Adjustment of, 

373- 
Pupils, Segregation of, 354; variability 
of, 344- 

Reading circles. Teachers', 286; organiza- 
tion of, 290; progressive work in, 288; 
texts for, 289. 

Recitation, The, 307. 

Records, school, Defects in existing, 537; 
improvement of, 550. 

Reform schools. Juvenile, 447. 

Reformatories, 446. 

Register, The daily, 550. 

Registration, 508, 539. 

Reports, School, 533; defects of, 537; 
improvement of, 550 ; based on records, 
553; to parents, 308. 



Revenue, School, 166. See also Finances. 
Rochester, School administration of, 132. 
Rural areas, 73. 
Rural schools, 389. 

Sabbatical term, 294. 

St. Louis, School administration of, 134. 

Salaries, "Equal," for men and women, 

266. 
Salaries, Teachers', 260; in cities, 262; 

of women, 263. 
Salary laws, Minimum, 264. 
Salary schedules, 265. 
Sanitaries, 184. 
Sanatorium schools, 565. 
School and church, 584. 
School and culture forces, 586. 
School and society, 582. 
School as physical environment, 429, 
School board, city, 127; county, 76. 
School buUdings, Heating and ventila- 
tion of, 187. 
School city. The, 515. 
School desks, 198; adjustable, 200; 

types of, 200; management of, 203. 
School economics, 535; objections to, 

535; reasons for, 536. 
School life. Physical effects of, 432. 
School sites, 178. 

Schoolhouse architect. Selection of, 179, 
Schoolhouse architecture, 172. 
Schoolhouses, Cleaning of, 205 ; rural, 

174; state laws concerning, 175; 

varieties of type, 177. 
Schoolroom, 184; temperature of, 187. 
Science, Application of, 406. 
Secondary education. Aims of, 360; 

administration of, 356. 
Secondary school teachers. Professional 

training for, 402. 
Segregation, 519. 
Self activity, 364. 
Self-government in high schools, 381, 

382. 
Social activities in high schools, 374, 378. 
Social centres, 590. 

Social education in reform schools, 452. 
Social expediency, Basis of state action, 

SO- 
Social machinery, 592. 
Social progress and education, 559. 
Social security, as aim of state education, 

42. 
Social wealth, basis of taxing power, 51. 
Spargo, John, quoted, 567. 



Index 



60 1 



Special classes, 462, 463; laws regarding, 
464; for defectives, 475. 

Specialization in industry, 414. 

State and education, 41. 

State and local administration, Problems 
of, 95- 

State Board of Education, 62. 

State control of education, 45 ; limits of, 
49; for defectives, 471. 

State direction of education, 47. 

State imposition of education, 48. 

State legislation favoring centralization, 
98. 

State participation in education. Motives 
for, 41. 

State school funds, Distribution of, 167. 

State superintendent of public instruc- 
tion, 68. 

State support of education, 46. 

Studies, Essential, 353; integration of, 
330; prescribed in high schools, 367. 

Study, Art of, 305; periods, 307. 

Summaries, financial, 524; N. E. A. 
Model, 525. 

Summer normals, 285. 

Superintendent, Appointment and tenure, 
238; and his councU, 235, 238; powers 
of, 230, 233; relation to principal, 238. 

Superintendent, County, 79; state, 69; 
city, 330; for rural schools, 112; of 
schools for defectives, 473. 

Supervision, Pedagogical, 376; prob- 
lems of, 107; scientific, 304; of kinder- 
garten and elementary schools, 300. 

Switzerland, Child labor legislation in, 
505- 

Taxation, Equalization of, for schools, 
166; minimum and maximum, 152; 
local, 148; state, 48, 147. 

Teachers, Appointment of, 249, 254; 
competitive selection of, 251; dismissal 
of, 256, 259; examination and certifica- 
tion of, 245; improvement of, 276; 
influence of, 284; length of service of, 
243; principles governing certification 
of, 246; professional training of, 242; 
physical well-being of, 294, 303; pro- 
motion of, 290; sex of, 241, 244; spe- 
cialization of, 247; supervision of, 244; 
tenure of office of, 255, 257. 

Teachers, as physical environment of 



children, 430; for reform schools, 
456; for vocational education, 423. 

Teachers' associations, 271. 

Teachers' institutes, 277. 

Teachers' pensions, 267. 

Teachers' protective unions, 272. 

Teachers' reading circles, 285. 

Teachers' salaries, 260. 

Tenure of office of teachers, 297. 

Texas, "Community District" of, 93. 

Text-books, 207; authorities to select, 
213; compulsory uniformity of, 211 ; 
cost of free, 222; free, 216; functions 
of, 209; objections to uniformity, 225; 
selection by experts, 226; supple- 
mentary, 224; uniformity of, 211, 221, 
224. 

Texts, Use of alternate, 220. 

Thorndike, E. L., quoted, 312, 357. 

Town or township, 89. 

Trades-unions and industrial education, 

423- 
Truant schools, Day, 459. 
Tuberculosis in schools, 464. 

Unification of administration, 100. 

Ungraded classes, 349. 

Urban areas, 73. 

Urban growth, Effects of, 582. 

Utah, Constitution of, 58. 

Vacation schools, 578. 

Vacations, Teachers', 297. 

Ventilation, Principles of, 189; eco- 
nomics of, 197. 

Virginia, Constitution of, 60 ; state board 
of, 64. 

Visiting, School, by teachers, 295. 

Vocational education. Adaptation of, 410; 
definition of, 404; correlation with 
cultural education, 419; of defectives, 
473; in reform schools, 451; and 
public school administration, 407; 
types of, 405. 

Washington, State board of, 66. 
West Virginia, State board of, 64. 
Wheelock, Miss Lucy, quoted, 302. 
Wheelwright, E. M., quoted, 177. 
Women, Educational work of, 592. 
Women in industry, Problems of, 417. 



A LIST OF BOOKS FOR TEACHERS 

Published by The Macmittan Company 



BAGLEY, William Chandler. Classroom Management : Its Principles 
and Technique. By William Chandler Bagley, Superintendent of the 
Training Department, State Normal School, Oswego, N.Y. 

Cloth. 127110. xvii -\- 252 pages . $1.25 net. 

The Educative Process. By William Chandler Bagley, Ph.D. 

Cloth. i2mo. xix -{-j^S pages. $i.2tfftei_ 

BUTLER, Nicholas Murray. The Meaning of Education and other 
Essays and Addresses. By Nicholas Murray Butler, President of Colum- 
bia University. Cloth. i2mo. xii-\- 230 pages. $1.00 net. 

CHUBB, Percival. The Teaching of English. By Percival Chubb, Princi- 
pal of High School Department, Ethical Culture School, New York. 

Cloth. 127710. xvii^ 411 pages. $i.oonet. 

COLLAR, George, and CROOK, Charles W. School Management and 
Methods of Instruction. By George Collar, Principal of the Stockwell 
Pupil-Teacher School, and Charles W. Crook, Head Master of the Higher 
Grade School, Wood Green N. Cloth. i2mo. vni-\- jj6 pages. $1.00 net. 

CRONSON, Bernard. Methods in Elementary School Studies. By 
Bernard Cronson, A.B., Ph.D., Principal of Public School No. 3, Borough 
of Manhattan, City of New York. Cloth. i2mo. 167 pages. $1.25 net. 

Pupil Self -Government. By Bernard Cronson. 

Cloth. i2tno. ix -\- 107 pages. $.gonet. 

CUBBERLEY. Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Education. With 
Selected Bibliographies and Suggested Readings. By Ellwood P. Cub- 
berley, Associate Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Junior Univer- 
sity. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. In two parts. 

Part I,v-\- I2g pages, $/.jo net ; Part II, xv -{-jdi pages, $1.50 net. 

Complete in one voluTne, $2.60 net. 

DE GARMO, Charles. Interest and Education. By Charles De Garmo, 
Professor of the Science and Art of Education in Cornell University. 

Cloth. 127710. xvii -\- 2J0 pages. $1.00 net. 

The Principles of Secondary Education. By Charles De Garmo, Pro- 
fessor of the Science and Art of Education in Cornell University. 

Vol. /, Studies. Cloth. j27no. xii + 2gg pages. $i.2§ net. 

Vol. II, Processes of Instruction, xii -\- 200 pages. $1.00 net. 

Vol. Ill, Processes of Instruction. In press. 

DEXTER, Edwin Grant. A History of Education in the United States. 

By Edwin Grant Dexter, Professor of Education in the University of Illinois. 

Cloth. xxi-\- 66s pages. ^^"^ $2.00 net. 

DUTTON, Samuel T. Social Phases of Education in the School and the 
Home. By Samuel T. Dutton, Superintendent of the Horace Mann 
Schools, New York. Cloth. i2mo. ix+25g pages. $1.25 net. 



A LIST OF BOOKS FOR TEACHERS — Continaed 



FITCH, Sir Joshua. Educational Aims and Methods. Lectures and Ad- 
dresses by Sir Joshua Fitch, late Her Majesty's Inspector of Training 
Colleges. Cloth. xii-\- 448 pages. 127110. $1.2^ net. 

Lectures on Teaching. Cloth, xiii-^-^g^ pages. i6mo. $1.00 net. 

OILMAN, Mary L. Seat Work and Industrial Occupations. A Practical 
Course for Primary Grades. By Mary L. Oilman, Principal of the Clay 
School, Minneapolis, Minn., and Elizabeth L. Williams, Principal of the 
Holmes School, Minneapolis, Minn. 

Fully illustrated. Cloth. 141 pages. Square i2mo. $.£onet. 

OANONO, William F. The Teaching Botanist. A Manual of Informa- 
tion upon Botanical Instruction, together with Outlines and Directions for 
a Comprehensive Elementary Course. By William F. Ganong, Ph.D., 
Professor of Botany in Smith College. 

Cloth. i2mo. xi-\- 2^0 pages. $1.10 net. 

HALLECK, Reuben Post. The Education of the Central Nervous System. 

A Study of Foundations, especially of Sensory and Motor Training. By 
Reuben Post Halleck, M.A. (Yale) . 

Cloth. i27no. xii-]- 258 pages. $i.Qonet. 

HANUS, Paul H. A Modern School. By Paul H. Hanus, Professor of the 
History and Art of Teaching in Harvard University. 

Cloth. I27H0. X -\- J06 pages . $1.21; net. 

Educational Aims and Educational Values. By Paul H. Hanus. 

Cloth. 121710, vii + 221 pages. $1.00 net. 

HERBART, JOHN FREDERICK. Outlines of Educational Doctrine. By John 
Frederick Herbart. Translated by Alex. F. Lange, Associate Professor of 
English and Scandinavian Philology and Dean of the Faculty of the College 
of Letters, University of California. Annotated by Charles De Oarmo, 
Professor of the Science and Art of Education, Cornell University. 

Cloth. Large 127110. xi-\r 334 pages. $1.2^ net. 

HERRICK, Cheesman A. The Meaning and Practice of Commercial Edu- 
cation. By Cheesman A. Herrick, Ph.D., Director of School of Com- 
merce, Philadelphia Central High School. 

Cloth. XV -\- 3^8 pages . i27no. $1.2$ net. 

HORNE, Herman Harrell. The Philosophy of Education. By Herman 
Harrell Home, Assistant Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy in Dart- 
mouth College. Cloth. 8vo. xvii-\- 2gs pages. $1.50 net. 

The Psychological Principles of Education. By Herman Harrell Home. 

Cloth. 127)10. xiii -f 435 pages. $1.75 net. 

HUEY, Edmund B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. By Pro- 
fessor Edmund B. Huey, of the Western University of Pennsylvania. 

Cloth. 121110. xvi^ 46q pages. $1.40 net. 

KILPATRICK, Van Evrie. Departmental Teaching in Elementary 
Schools. By Van Evrie Kilpatrick. 

Cloth. i2tno. xiii -\- 130 pages. i67no. $.60 net. 



A LIST OF BOOKS FOR TEACHERS — Continued 



KIRKPATRICK, Edwin A. Fundamentals of Child Study. By Professor 

Edwin A. Kirkpatrick, Principal of State Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass. 

C/ot/i. i2mo. xxi-\- 384 pages. $1.25 net. 

MAJOR, David R. First Steps in Mental Growth. A Series of Studies in 
the Psychology of Infancy. By David R. Major, Professor of Education 
in the Ohio State University. 

Cloth. xiv-\-j6o pages. i2?no. $1.2^ net. 

THE McMURRY SERIES Each, doth, l2mo. 

General Method. 

The Elements of General Method. By Charles A. McMurry. 

S^Spi^S"- $-90 "^*- 

The Method of the Recitation. By Charles A. McMurry and Frank M. 

McMurry, Professor of the Theory and Practice of Teaching, Teachers 
College, Columbia University. xi-\-j2g pages. $.gonet. 

Special Method. By Charles A. McMurry, 

Special Method in Primary Reading and Oral Work with Stories. 

vii + loj pages. $.60 net. 

Special Method in the Reading of English Classics. 

vi-\- 2^4 pages. $.'/§ net. 

Special Method in Language in the Eight Grades. 

viii + ig2 pages. $.'jo net. 
Course of Study in the Eight Grades. 

Vol. J. Grades I to IV. vii-{- 2j6 pages. $.Y§ net. 
Vol.11. Grades V to VIII. v + 226 pages. $.js net. 

Special Method in History. vii + 29/ pages. ^.75 net. 

Special Method in Arithmetic. vii + 225 pages. $.70 net. 

Special Method in Geography. xi + 21J pages. $.70 net. 

Special Method in Elementary Science. ix + 275 pages. ^.75 net. 

Nature Study Lessons for Primary Grades. By Mrs. Lida B. McMurry, 

with an Introduction by Charles A. McMurry. xi + igi pages. $.60 net. 



MONROE, Paul. A Brief Course in the History of Education. By Paul 
Monroe, Ph.D., Professor in the History of Education, Teachers College, 
Columbia University. Clotk. 8vo. xviii-\- 4og pages. $1.25 net. 

A Text-book in the History of Education. 

Cloth, xxiil + 27-] pages. i2nio. $i.go net. 

A Source Book of the History of Education. For the Greek and Roman 

Period. Cloth, x Hi + §!§ pages. 8vo. $2.25 net. 

O'SHEA, M. V. Dynamic Factors in Education. By M. V. O'Shea, Pro- 
fessor of the Science and Art of Education, University of Wisconsin. 

Cloth, izmo. xiii -\- 320 pages . ^/. 25 net. 

Linguistic Development and Education. 

Cloth. i2mo. xvii-\-j47 pages. $1.25 net. 



A LIST OF BOOKS FOR TEACHERS — Confinaed 



PARK, Joseph C. Educational Woodworking for Home and School. By 
Joseph C. Park, State Normal and Training School, Oswego, N.Y. 

Cloth. i2mo. xiii-\-jio pages, illus. $i.oo net. 

PERRY, Arthur C. The Management of a City School. By Arthur C. 
Perry, Jr., Ph.D., Principal of Public School No. 85, Brooklyn, N.Y. 

Cloth, ismo. via ^ j^o pages . $1.23 net. 

ROWE, Stuart H. The Physical Nature of the Child. By Dr. Stuart H. 
Rowe, Professor of Psychology and the History of Education, Training 
School for Teachers, Brooklyn, N.Y. 

Cloth, ismo. vi-]r 21J pages. $.gonet. 

ROYCE, JosiAH. Outlines of Psychology. An Elementary Treatise with 
some Practice' Applications. By Josiah Royce, Professor of the History 
of Philosophy in Harvard University. 

Cloth. i2mo. xxvn-{-jg2 pages. $1.00 net. 

SHAW, Edward R. School Hygiene. By the late Edward R. Shaw. 

Cloth. vii-{-2j^ pages. i2mo. $1.00 net. 

SMITH, David E. The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. By David 
E. Smith, Professor of Mathematics, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity. Cloth. XV -Y 212 pages. j2>no. $1.00 net. 

SNEDDEN AND ALLEN. School Reports and School Efficiency. By David 
S, Snedden, Ph.D., and William H. Allen, Ph.D. For the New York 
Committee on Physical Welfare of School Children. 

Cloth. i2mo. xi -\- i8j pages. $i.<;o net. 

VANDEWALKER, NiNA C. The Kindergarten in American Education. 
By Nina C. Vandewalker, Director of Kindergarten Training Department, 
Milwaukee State Normal School. 

Cloth. xiii-\- 2^4 pages. Portr., index, i2mo. $1.2^ net. 

WARNER, Francis. The Study of Children and Their School Training. 

By Francis Warner. Cloth, xix + 264 pages, i2mo. $1.00 net. 

WINTERBURN AND BARR. Methods in Teaching. Being the Stockton 
Methods in Elementary Schools. By Mrs. Rosa V. Winterburn, of Los 
Angeles, and James A. Barr, Superintendent of Schools at Stockton, Cal. 
Cloth. xii-\-j55 pages. i2mo. $1.25 net. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS, 64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 




























"-^ ^Q,;--o,x 







^ -^^0^ 



>^ 9^ ° 




^^0^ 








"%„ ^^ 



«5 o^ 



,^ 9^ 



V ^ ^ ^ « ^ -%, 

V <3 tS *■ *1 












r.^^ 



o^' 



4> ^ 



\> o. 1 ° ,, ^^ 






.f. . ■ . , %:- » • ^ v< . . : %,' '-' v<'^ ■ . , % 



'~0^ ■^ » ■'■ 





0^ .^^''^/.. -^ 








,4^ O^ o 






"^^0^ 



N^ ^^ 







^^ ^ °. 











c\ 












Q~. '*-/ ^ _ , -*" .-9^ 



O. ^0..-^ ,X^ 



O-, 



\> „ ^ * ^ ^^ \> „ ^ « , -Ti, \> „^*o, 



'^_ 



